Developing Language Learning Strategies 

Carmen Gloria Garrido Barra

Carmen Gloria Garrido Barra is a teacher of English at Inacap University in Chile.  She has been a teacher for 15 years. She has a Master’s degree in Education and is interested in methodology. E-mail: carmgarrido@hotmail.com

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Introduction
Language learning strategies
Oxford’s strategy classification system (1990)
Developing language learning strategies
Strategy training sequence used in cognitive academic language learning approach
Conclusion

Introduction

According to cognitive psychology, there is no doubt that learners are not passive when learning a foreign or second language, but they are actively involved. Research shows that successful language learners develop different language learning strategies and can choose the most effective for a given task. If teachers want to help their students become independent and successful, they need to help them develop appropriate learning strategies so they can deal with language tasks successfully.

Language learning strategies

A language learning strategy is ‘like a tactic used by a player. It is a series of skills used with a particular learning process in mind’ (Williams and Burden 2002:145). Some of these strategies are observable but most are mental processes that are not directly observable. Both observable and non observable strategies help students become autonomous and successful language learners.

Oxford’s strategy classification system (1990)

R. Oxford identified the different factors that affect the choice of strategies: degree of awareness, stage of learning, task requirements, teacher expectations, age, sex, nationality/ethnicity, general leaning style, personality traits, motivation level and purpose for learning the language.

Oxford also developed a taxonomy (see figure 1) which divides language strategies into two main groups: direct and indirect strategies. Language learning strategies that directly involve the target language are called direct strategies. All direct language strategies require mental processing of the language, but the three groups of direct strategies (memory, cognitive and compensation) do this processing differently and for different purposes. Strategies that 	support the language learning process are called indirect strategies (metacognitive, affective and social strategies).

Figure 1
Oxford’s strategy classification system (1990)

Direct strategies: Memory, Cognitive and Compensation Strategies.	
Memory Strategies
They help students store and retrieve new information	Cognitive Strategies
They involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself.	Compensation Strategies
They help learners to understand or produce messages in the target language despite limitations of knowledge.	
Indirect strategies: Metacognitive, Affective and Social Strategies.	
Metacognitive Strategies
They involve planning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, and monitoring, and evaluating one’s progress. 	Affective Strategies
They help students to regulate emotions, motivations and attitudes.
	Social Strategies
They help to learn through interaction with others.	

Developing language learning strategies

Investigation shows language learning strategies can be taught through strategy training.  According to MacIntyre & Noels (1996) students can benefit from this kind of instruction if they can understand the strategy itself, perceive it to be effective and do not consider its implementation to be too difficult. 

Strategy training sequence used in cognitive academic language learning approach

There are different models for teaching learning strategies. O’Malley and Chamot (1990) propose a model that involves a sequence of five steps. (See figure 2). In this model, teachers first help students identify the strategies they are already using, then they present and explain a new strategy. At this stage, the teacher might model the new strategy. Next, students practice the new strategy, at first with considerable support but then encouraging autonomous use. Finally, students evaluate their success and develop transfer of strategies to new tasks. 

Figure 2: 

Preparation
Develop student awareness of different strategies through small group retrospective interviews about school tasks, modelling think-aloud then having students think aloud in small groups, discussion of interviews and think-alouds.

Presentation
Develop student knowledge about strategies by providing rationale for strategy use, describing and naming strategy, and modelling strategy.

Practice
Develop student skills in using strategies for academic learning through co-operative learning tasks, think-alouds while problem solving, peer tutoring in academic tasks, group discussions.
Evaluation
Develop student ability to evaluate own strategy use through writing strategies used immediately after task, discussing strategy use in class, keeping dialogue journals (with teacher) on strategy use. 
Expansion
Develop transfer of strategies to new tasks by discussions on metacognitive and motivational aspects of strategy use, additional practice on similar academic tasks, assignments to use learning strategies on tasks related to cultural backgrounds of students.’ (O’Malley and Chamot 1990)

Conclusion

One of the tasks of a language teacher is to help students become autonomous learners. This can be done by assisting students to develop learning strategies. Some strategies can require mental processing of the language while others deal with affective, social and communication skills.  Both types play a vital role when dealing successfully with a language task.

The Building Positive Group Dynamics course can be viewed here.
The  Creative Methodology for the Classroom course can be viewed here.
The  Skills of Teacher Training course can be viewed here.

References
1.	ARNOLD, J. (1999). Affect in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2.	CHAMOT, A, S.BARNHARDT, S., P. BEARD. J. ROBINS. (1999). The Learning Strategies Handbook. New York:  Longman.
3.	DÖRNYEI, Z. (2001). Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
4.	KNOWLES, M. (1976).The Modern Practice of Adult Education. New York: Association Press.
5.	O’MALLEY, J, A. CHAMOT (1990). Language Learning Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6.	OXFORD, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies. What every teacher should know. Massachusetts:  Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
7.	MACINTYRE, P. D. & NOELS, K. A. (1996). Using Psychosocial Variables to Predict the Use of Language Learning Strategies. Foreign Language Annals, 29, 373-386.
8.	WILLIAMS, M., R. BURDEN, (2002). Psychology for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.