Putting Eclecticism into a Framework

Philip Hanham, PIPA, Uruguay

Philip Hanham has been teaching English in Uruguay since moving there in 1999. He works mainly with adolescents and adults at CEDI (Centro Estudios de Ingles) in Salto and prepares students for Cambridge PET, FCE, CAE, CPE, CELS and BEC international exams, as well as CEDI´s in-house exams. Since the beginning of 2006 he has been developing an 'eclectic teaching framework' in an effort to find a way to maximise the learning and skills practice that takes place in his class. E-mail: philhanham@hotmail.com

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Introduction
The PIPA Framework
Why 'PIPA'?
Start of Term / Year Overview
Stage 1 - Vocabulary Presentation
Stage 2 - Grammar Presentation
The 'Skills Stages' - Receptive before Productive
Stage 3 - Reading
Stage 4 - Listening
Stage 5 - Writing
Stage 6 - Speaking
Stage 7 - Assessment
Follow-up
Variety
Summary
Comments, Suggestions and Criticisms
Thank you note

Introduction

These days it seems to be getting more and more common to hear English teachers in Uruguay, and presumably around the world, talking about the need to be eclectic. In other words, we select what we like and believe works from various methods and approaches and mix them together, hoping that we are teaching our students in the best possible way. This growing belief in eclecticism apparently stems from the fact that no one method has been proved to be superior to all others in all teaching situations.

Of course there have been attempts to find a globally superior method. In the 1960s Scherer and Warner (1964) conducted a two year experiment to ascertain which was more effective, the (then) modern audio-lingual method or the traditional grammar-translation method, and found no significant differences. Shortly after this came the extensive Pennsylvania Project where audio-lingualism was compared with traditional teaching informed by the (then) latest 'cognitive' ideas. After four years, this experiment (Smith 1970) also failed to find a superior method, although the 'traditional' method did seem to give better results with reading skills. In their book 'An introduction to classroom research for language teachers' (Cambridge University Press) Dick Allwright and Kathleen Bailey sum up nicely the general feeling after these apparent 'failures'.

In the long run, the ultimate loser in this inconclusive battle was neither audio-lingualism nor its cognitive rival but the very notion of making global methodological prescriptions. It no longer made sense to imagine that one method would ever prove in some absolute way to be superior to its competitors. No one method could therefore be prescribed, like some patent medicine, with absolute confidence in its global, universal, effectiveness.'

Nevertheless, many other methods and approaches have appeared and become popular since the days of grammar-translation and audio-lingualism, some of which are still widely used today and are effective in particular, if not global, teaching situations.

The advantage of the multiplicity of methods and approaches from which we can now choose is that we have a large 'bank' of ideas to draw from. It seems that this combined with the realisation that there is unlikely to ever be one superior global method has led to the growing feeling that eclecticism is probably the way forward, as mentioned above.

But what is the best way to make eclecticism really work for us? Which parts from which methods and approaches should we choose and how should we organise them. Clearly, the first step is to think carefully about who our learners are and what needs they have, and then we can use our knowledge and experience to decide what we think will work best for them. However, I believe we can go further than that. With a little more thought we can organize our eclecticism into frameworks which aim to maximize our students learning in an organised fashion.

This is something that I have attempted to do and which has evolved into what I have called the PIPA Framework. I would like to share it with you now with two aims in mind. Firstly, I would like it to stand as an example of how we can draw ideas together from various methods and organise them into a workable framework that hopefully suits our learners needs and maximizes the effectiveness of class time. Secondly, if you like the look of the framework it would be wonderful if you could try it and give me feedback of your experience with it so that I might further develop it.

I have attempted to make the framework as clear as possible and to support my reasons for organising it the way I have. As you read, you will no doubt spot different aspects of various methods and approaches which are not specifically mentioned. The reason for this is that the framework has evolved more from thinking about what works in class and how activities can be logically sequenced rather than through considering which aspects of various methodologies and approaches can be mixed together. It can be said that the framework has evolved more from the bottom-up rather than from the top-down.

The PIPA Framework

Before we can produce an eclectic framework we must be clear who our learners are, what their goals are, and the challenges we face as teachers in order to help them achieve these goals.

The learners who the PIPA Framework is aimed at are Uruguayan students who are cognitively mature as far as language learning is concerned. I can separate this group of learners into two sub-groups:

• Adolescents who are often obliged to study English by parents or the school curriculum
• Adults who have usually chosen to study English

I have observed that the main goal of most of the adolescents I teach is to ultimately arrive at a level of language proficiency that will enable them to pass an international exam (in my learners' case this means the Cambridge FCE or perhaps CAE or CPE). Certainly, there are other individual goals, but it is more than often the case that the learners feel the need to arrive at this level in order to enhance future employment opportunities. In order to pass the above mentioned international exams it is necessary to have a reasonable command of the four language skills; reading, writing, listening and speaking, which require knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. In other words, they need to be well-rounded users of English.

In this respect the adults are similar to the adolescents. Although the adults have, in many cases, already obtained employment and having little need of passing exams, they often set themselves the same goal of becoming well-rounded users of English.

There is another similarity in that both groups rarely dedicate much time to the study of English outside the classroom. As mentioned above, the adolescents are usually obliged to attend English classes in Uruguay, and it can be said that they often lack intrinsic motivation. Not only this, but English is forced to compete with other 'demands' on their time such as high school work, socialising with friends, watching TV, using the Internet, etc, (and often loses out!). I have also observed that although most adults are frequently willing to extend their study of the language into their own time, the pressure of adult life can make it difficult for many of them.

Therefore, the challenge that I believe we are all faced with as teachers, unless our teaching is focussed on a particular skill or skills, is how to maximise the effectiveness of class time and help our students to become the best well-rounded users of English that they can be.

What I have tried to do with this framework to meet the above challenge is to give systematic practice in the four language skills; reading, listening, writing and speaking, while at the same time using the skills to aid learning and acquisition of specific grammar and vocabulary as much as possible.

Why 'PIPA'?

The Framework has seven stages which will span a number of lessons. In stages 1 and 2 learners are presented with vocabulary and grammar. Stages 3 to 6 are where the skills are practiced. In stages 3 and 4 learners practice reading and listening and identify examples of the presented vocabulary and grammar. In stages 5 and 6 writing and speaking are practiced and learners are asked to produce examples of the presented vocabulary and grammar. Finally, in 7th stage we assess the learners progress. Therefore we get:

Present
Identify (skills practice)
Produce (skills practice)
Assess

Start of Term / Year Overview

I believe learners should be fully involved in the learning process from the start and be clear about the learning goals you will set them. At the beginning of each term or period of learning they should be given an overview of the grammar that they will meet. This could take the form of a simple list, a spider-gram, a mind-map, a timetable etc. The important thing is that the learner knows what will be expected of them right from the beginning and will have a sense of purpose and understanding of why they are doing what they are doing as they use the PIPA Framework throughout the term or year.

Stage 1 - Vocabulary Presentation

The PIPA Framework is ideal for a curriculum of thematic units. At the beginning of each framework learners are presented with vocabulary items that will appear later and are connected to the theme. It is also an opportunity to present vocabulary items on the theme that do not appear in the unit. Effective presentation can mean that recycled vocabulary items that are internalised can act as 'memory-anchors' for other vocabulary items. For example, if sports is the theme of the unit, sports vocabulary other than that which appears in the unit can be incorporated into the presentation. In addition, other vocabulary items can be presented here, for example phrasal verbs or idiomatic expressions. It is also important to remember that collocations are very valuable and should be included where possible.

The advantage of presenting vocabulary items at this stage is that it guarantees recycling and helps to facilitate comprehension of the activities that will follow. The presentation vocabulary could be in one of the following forms:

• Pattern displays
• Mind maps
• Spidergrams
• Collocation boxes

Presenting a simple list of vocabulary items is not recommended as this is widely regarded as an ineffective form of vocabulary presentation.

Stage 2 - Grammar Presentation

You will probably notice that this stage is really a blend of inductive and deductive grammar presentation.

To begin, the learners are given a short text on the chosen theme to read which contains examples of the grammar point to be focused on and a number of comprehension questions which test their understanding of the grammar. Although they have not received the presentation yet, they may be able guess meaning from context or have some knowledge of the grammar point from previous exposure. Moreover, it may be that you have chosen to use a framework to recycle grammar previously taught. When the learners have finished answers are checked. If the learners are unable to answer, there is likely to be the feeling of a need for the grammar, which should act as a positive motivating factor for the presentation, which follows.

I consider that the explicit presentation of the grammar point is best done on the board or OHP with learners copying into their notebooks, rather than by reading from the coursebook or giving handouts; in this way they are forced to at least pay some attention to the presentation!

Explicit grammar presentation techniques are generally well established and most teachers have one they prefer. Pattern displays are often found to be effective and are recommended. For example:

Another related presentation which is recommended is the substitution table:

It is vital to check understanding of meaning and usage as well as form. An effective way to do this is by using concept questions. For example:

I used to live in England.
Do I live in England now?
Did I live in England in the past?

There may be other techniques that teachers would prefer to use. The important thing is that the presentation is clear and concise.

After the presentation, the learners go back to the short text that they have already read and underline or highlight examples of the grammar point. They are now ready to go on to the first of the 'skills stages'.

The 'Skills Stages' - Receptive before Productive

You will notice that the 'receptive' skills of reading and listening have been placed before the 'productive' skills of writing and speaking. The logic behind this is simple - it seems to be that this is the natural order of language acquisition. In our first language, as children, we receive language aurally before we produce it orally. Adults who move abroad and 'pick up' a language need to hear or read it before they can produce it.

Stage 3 - Reading

If the first skill is to be receptive, why put reading before listening? I believe that as we are dealing with learners who have already acquired the ability to read in their first language, it is reasonable to put reading first as it is less demanding than listening for most students due to the fact that they do not have the added pressure of keeping up with the speaker or unfamiliar pronunciation. They are able to take their time with the text, re-read if necessary and ask the teacher for help if it is needed.

Any type of text can be used for the reading stage, the main stipulation is that it must contain several examples of both the vocabulary and grammar presented in stages one and two. In addition, it should be as interesting as possible for the learners so that they will be motivated to read it. Texts which produce emotions are likely to be the most memorable and the teacher should strive to exploit this fact whenever possible.

Learners must be aware beforehand that the text contains examples of the vocabulary and grammar that they have been presented with, but that they are also practicing their reading skills. Obviously, if the vocabulary and grammar have been effectively presented this will help to facilitate comprehension, which is a motivating factor in itself. Learners often lose motivation to read when they meet too many unknown words or structures.

There are many activities that can be done and a number of reading skills that can be focused on.

Skills could include:

• Skimming
  
• Scanning
  
• Reading for detailed comprehension
  

Activities could include:

• Answering comprehension questions
  
• Jigsaw reading
  
• Identifying suitable sub-titles for paragraphs
  
• Replacing sentences which have been extracted from the text in their correct places
  
• Insertion of text connectors and linking words and phrases into spaces in the text

After completing the reading task, learners are asked to identify and highlight or underline examples of vocabulary from the presentation stages, preferably in different colours. I have found that successful identification of examples tends to lead to a feeling of success for learners from a task which is not too challenging, and success is motivating.

Stage 4 - Listening

As with reading, texts of any type can be used with the same stipulation: it should contain several examples of both the vocabulary and grammar presented in stages one and two and be as interesting as possible for the learners. Again, if a text that produces emotions in our learners can be found it is likely to prove more fruitful than something mundane. If one thinks about songs and video, for example, a whole range of emotions can be tapped into.

As with the reading stage, learners must be aware that the text contains examples of the vocabulary and grammar that they have been presented with, but that they are also practicing their listening skills. Again, they are likely to have improved possibilities of comprehension as they have previously met language included in the text.

Skills that can be practiced include:

• Listening for general comprehension
  
• Listening for detailed comprehension
  
• Scanning for specific information
  

Text types could include:

• Monologues
  
• Dialogues
  
• Narratives
  
• Songs
  
• Videos

The identification of presented language takes place after the listening task in order that the grammar point and vocabulary are clearly contextualised beforehand. The listening material is played again and learners either note it down or call for the teacher to stop the recording when it is heard and they then repeat it back.

Tapescripts and lyric sheets are also a very useful resource for identification and can be used either during or after the listening.

A further benefit of including a listening which specifically includes language that you wish to focus on is that learners have the opportunity to hear correct pronunciation of vocabulary and grammar. This can be further exploited by using tapescripts for 'listen and repeat' or 'shadow reading' exercises, or by using lyrics for sing-a-long activities.

After meeting target vocabulary and grammar through presentations, reading and listening, learners should now be ready to produce it.

Stage 5 - Writing

In the same way that reading is put before listening at the receptive end of the skills stages, writing is put before speaking at the productive end of the framework for obvious reasons. When we write we have more time to think, we can refer to notes we have made, we can erase what we have written and write it again if we wish. In short, there is less pressure when we write than when we speak and we have more possibilities of getting it right.

The number of writing tasks which can be chosen for this stage is multitudinous. For example, formal/informal letters, e-mails, stories, diaries, journals, essays etc would all be suitable. The one stipulation is that they allow learners to use vocabulary and grammar from the presentations in stages one and two and that the learners are aware that they should make every effort to do this.

In practise, I have found it can be useful to set a writing task of a similar genre to that of the reading text from stage three. For example, if the reading text is a story, the learners write a story of their own. However, this does not necessarily have to be the case.

Stage 6 - Speaking

As mentioned above, this follows writing because it is usually considered more challenging. However, by now learners should be feeling more confident about producing the presented language orally.

I would like to mention a personal anecdote here. A few years ago, after a successful speaking activity in class, one of my students came up with the great phrase, 'Speaking helps me to get in touch with my learning.' He clearly felt that he had to 'learn' first and then produce, and that the production reinforced his learning. Essentially, this is the idea behind the Skills Approach.

As far as a speaking activity is concerned, like writing there are countless possibilities to choose from. It is recommended that a communicative element is included as this has been shown to aid acquisition. Once again, the one stipulation is that they should be suitable for learners to use vocabulary and grammar from the presentations in stages one and two and that learners are aware that they should make every effort to do this.

Stage 7 - Assessment

Although I use the term 'assessment', what we are really talking about here is a good old-fashioned test! It is always important to regularly assess (test!) our learners in order that we may know how much they are learning. This seventh stage is vital for both the teacher and learners alike as it will inform decisions about what to do next. Moreover, if the learners are aware that there will be an assessment (test!), hopefully they will be persuaded to go over their work again.

By now, we would hope that the learners are able to produce what they have been focusing on, so the test should require production; simple identification in a multiple choice test, for example, would not be sufficient.

Primarily, what we are testing here is the grammar point and vocabulary that have been focused on. The skills themselves should improve over time with the regular practice that implementing this framework is likely to bring, although obviously we will need to assess these as well. This can be done outside the PIPA Framework. If the learners perform well in the assessment (test!) then they are probably ready to move on. If not, then more work will be needed. If this is the case, learners could repeat stages three, four, five, six and seven - obviously with fresh material. Alternatively, another assessment (test!) could be set giving learners time to go over the language again themselves.

Follow-up

Once a framework has been completed, it is important that learners continue to identify and use the grammar and vocabulary at every possible opportunity in future classwork. It is also highly recommended to display language that has been focused on around the classroom. Traditional restricted use practice activities could be given after the seventh stage, perhaps as homework, in order to keep the language fresh in learners´ minds.

Variety

It may be argued that there is not enough variety in this framework. I would counter that by saying that there is infinite opportunity for variety of activities within the stages; the only aspect of the framework that is fixed is the order of the stages. Moreover, other classroom activities and extra skills practice can take place, but once a framework is started it is recommended to follow the stages in the order given above.

Summary

The PIPA Framework is an attempt to use an eclectic approach in an organised fashion. It is aimed at maximising the potential of class-time with cognitively mature learners and helping them to be the best well-rounded users of English that they can be. In order to do this it gives equal importance to the learning of vocabulary and grammar and the practising of the four language skills. The logical movement through the skills, first receptive, then productive, allows learners to build up knowledge and recognition of the selected vocabulary and grammar in a gradual manner before being required to produce it. The success of each framework is then assessed in order to inform future decisions on classroom activities.

Comments, Suggestions and Criticisms

If you have got this far, it means that you have taken the time to read about my ideas on the need to organise eclecticism and my suggestion on how this can be done by giving an example of what I have called the PIPA Framework, and I thank you for that. As mentioned above, I would be extremely grateful to receive any comments, suggestions or criticisms that you may have. Even better, if you are motivated to try out a framework or two in class, I would be very interested in your feedback - my e-mail address is philhanham@hotmail.com . I am hoping to produce a practical example of the framework soon in order to demonstrate how it can be put into use and if you would like to see it please feel free to contact me.

Finally, I would like to remind you that the beauty of being eclectic is that you get to choose what you do. You may like to try my framework as it is, or with a few modifications of your own. However, if you feel it is not for you or you have a group of learners that PIPA is clearly not suitable for, children for example, then you could have a go at designing your own framework. What I do recommend, though, is to have the confidence to share your ideas with colleagues and listen carefully to their comments, which is something that I have done with PIPA. In some cases comments I have received have led to changes in the framework, in others I have noted what has been said but preferred to keep things as they are. However, all the comments have been gratefully received and very useful.

Thank you note

I would like to thank the following people for taking the time to give me their kind comments, useful suggestions and valuable feedback on this framework:

Laura Bortagaray
Jeremy Harmer
Graciela Lipovezky
Aldo Rodriguez
Ingrid Urroz
Gerardo Valazza

Please check the Skills of Teacher Training course at Pilgrims website.
Please check the Expert Teacher course at Pilgrims website.