Editorial
The article first appeared in a special issue of the ETAI Forum 2013, celebrating the 20th Anniversary of the Lexical Approach.

The Company Words Keep

Paul Davis, UK, and Hanna Kryszewska, Poland

Paul Davis is freelance teacher, trainer and writer. He has co-authored “Dictation”, “More Grammar Games” and “Ways of doing” (CUP). His latest book is “The Company Words Keep” (DELTA Publishing). E-mail: paul25davis@hotmail.com

Hanna Kryszewska is senior lecturer at the University of Gdańsk, Poland. Teacher trainer, co-author of course books, resource books and teacher training materials, and editor of Humanising Language Teaching old.hltmag.co.uk
E-mail: hania.kryszewska@pilgrims.co.uk

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Abstract
Introduction
Start with one word
Expanding chunks
Learning and storing chunks
Revising coursebook chunks
Using on-line resources
Conclusion
References

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to promote a more lexical approach in an English language class. Most current coursebooks do not pay enough attention to learning English through lexical chunks, despite the fact that data from Corpus Linguistics supports a more lexical approach. The authors present five practical activities which are instantly usable in the classroom and establish the importance of chunks in the learners’ strategies for learning.

Key words: lexical chunks, lexical approach, supplementing the coursebook, learner strategies, practical activities

Introduction

Thinking about language chunks as the main building blocks of language is a relatively new way of thinking about language acquisition and language learning. This approach puts lexis before grammar and lexical phrases (Nattinger, 1992) or lexical chunks (Lewis, 1993, 1997) are seen as the crucial building blocks of the language which ‘prime’ certain grammar (Hoey, 2005). Insights into how we learn our mother tongue confirm that we learn it through such chunks which get gradually stored in our heads and retrieved when needed. First come single words, then come so called ‘holophrases’ (single words that have the function of a sentence), next the stored chunks get longer and longer but there is a limit. We know that the chunks cannot usually be longer than 7 elements ( Miller, 1956 pp. 243–352). These chunks are then used to string utterances together, and grammar is wound around them. What is important, is to recognize that when we use mother tongue we notice the company words keep, then store and retrieve whole chunks. This helps in effective reading, writing and speaking. ELT can benefit greatly from adopting to a more lexical approach. In our new book “The Company Words Keep”(Davis & Kryszewska, 2012) we have designed activities which promote more focus on chunking, learner training towards storing chunks and also teacher training to help teachers modify their way of using the coursebook and other materials.

Start with one word

The first step may be showing the learners how important a single word is. Here is a sample activity which helps the learners become aware of that.

1. Get the learners to prepare a dialogue in pairs, to be read out to whole class. Each utterance should have one word and one word only. This is an example of student text:
   • I …
   • No.
   • Mm.
   • No
   • Please.
   • Oh.
   • Yes?
   • Well.
   • Thanks.
2. When they are ready, get them to read their dialogues out loud.

This activity looks artificial but, by restricting the learner to single-word utterances, we get a more natural result – which illustrates that lexis is often used at the expense of grammar when speaking. The reading aloud forces learners' awareness of the importance of intonation in conveying meaning.

Instead of presenting the dialogues in front of the class, the learners can circulate their dialogues and read them in pairs. In this way, they get more practice in intonation.

Single word dialogues often feature in modern literature and can be used in class to get learners used to ‘single word chunks’. This example is from After Liverpool by James Saunders:

• Hey!
• Hm?
• Catch!
• Thanks.
• Eat!
• Catch.
• Thanks.
• Eat.
• Catch.

Expanding chunks

Then we can move onto phrases which are not full sentences and contain very little grammar.

Prepare a set of different pictures or photos (any sort will do), one per pair of learners, and approximately ten slips of paper per learner.

1. Spread out the pictures or photos on tables. One per pair. Give each learner a set of ten blank slips.
   • They work in pairs, mingle and look for English words for things that appear in the pictures. For example: red, woman, big.
   • They write the words on separate slips of paper and leave them next to the picture, face up.
   • They then move on to another picture.
2. Make sure they write single words at this stage, not phrases or sentences.
3. Stop when the learners have used up most of their slips.
4. In pairs, the learners go from picture to picture and identify any words written on the slips that they don’t know. They can ask the teacher or their classmates.
5. Stop the activity when you see they have seen most of the pictures and worked with most of words on the slips.
6. Now ask the pairs of learners to take pens and move from picture to picture. This time, they add one word to the words on the slips – red hair, young woman, big car. They write their words on the slips. Make sure the word order is correct.
7. Stop the activity when most of the words have been made into two-word chunks.
8. Tell the learners to keep moving around. This time, they add a third word where it is possible. You will need to monitor and check, for example, big red car rather than red, big car.
9. Discuss the various chunks with the whole class.
10. If possible, display the pictures, along with the chunks, on the wall or some other display area for further reference. The learners are usually interested to see what the others have written.

This activity can be followed up by a writing or speaking activity in which the learners describe the pictures using the chunks.

Learning and storing chunks

Learners have the habit of writing down mainly single words in their exercise books. They tend to think that they will make progress if they learn a lot of single words. Yet they need to realise that they also need to store a variety of new chunks some of which are made up of words they already know. This activity illustrates the issue.

You need a set of various dictionaries, some old-fashioned and some corpus-based.

1. Choose a very simple English word, ideally one that is a cognate in the learners’ L1. For example: sport. Write the word in the middle of the board.
2. Ask the learners to work in threes and to come up with as many meanings and chunks with the word that they know.
3. Pool the findings and write them on the board. As far as possible, similar ones should be grouped together.
4. Give out the dictionaries, ask the learners to research the word and add their new findings to those already written up.
5. Discuss with the learners what they have discovered about the word sport, and how a word only becomes meaningful in a chunk.
6. Assuming the class is using a variety of different types of dictionary, ask them which ones deal with word partnerships and chunks best.

This sample text below shows the end product when learners worked with the word ‘sport’ and it contains the words the learners have pooled and added what they have found in the dictionaries:

to make sport of (joke about)         It’s sporting of you
                                                    (generous)
                              It’s a sport
                             (gamble)

             to sport shoulder length hair

                         *sport ( see note below)
Hello sport!
       (mate)                                          sportsmanship
       (matey)

                     He is a good sport
                          spoilsport
SUV
      Sport          sport supplement
               sports car
     sportive
               a sporting chance
               (how likely)
sporting occasion
sporting family
sporting hero
                         sports drink          sportscast
                                                       sportscasters
sports jacket

     sporty
     Sporty Spice          sports centre

Revising coursebook chunks

Learners need to have ample opportunities to practise the chunks they have encountered. They need to revise and recycle chunks they have observed in their coursebook and other materials. The next activity focuses on recycling and helps learners to retrieve chunks from memory and work on accuracy in the production of chunks. It encourages them to experiment, activating and extending single words, expanding them into meaningful chunks.

Prepare a grid for a simple board game. Write key words in each box, make enough copies for groups of three or four learners, and bring enough dice to class.

1. Tell the learners they are going to play a board game to practise some of the vocabulary from the coursebook. Everyone needs to find their own counter (a coin or a ring will do).
2. Divide the learners into groups of three or four, distribute the boards and dice and explain the game:
   • They throw the dice.
   • As they move onto a square, the learners must say a chunk with this word.
   • The rest of their group decide if they think the chunk is correct.
   • If it is not correct, the learner has to go back three spaces.
   • If a group cannot decide whether a chunk is OK, they can call you in to check.
3. The winner is the person who finishes first.

Using on-line resources

Using the Internet and on-line resources is very useful in learner training and researching chunks. This activity is one with which you might start looking at lexical chunking using ICT. The learners are introduced to Google as a kind of giant corpus which they can access easily, getting a picture of English as a language used by native speakers from various countries as well as non natives. They work with Google frequency in a fun, competitive way, activating the chunks they already know.

You need a class with internet access for each pair of learners.

1. Write the chunk my best friend on the board and ask the learners to predict how many times it appears in Google.
2. Google the chunk ‘my best friend’.
3. Show the learners where the information comes up: in the upper right-hand corner: ‘Results 1–10 of about 140,000,000 results (0.23 seconds) / January 2012’
4. Divide the class into pairs and tell them they are going to play a game.
   • Each learner says a chunk in English.
   • They write the chunks down on a piece of paper.
   • The learners google the chunks.
   • They see whose chunk appears more often.
   • The learner whose chunk is more frequent scores a point.
5. The learners play six rounds, then the winners go to quarter finals, etc.
6. Finally, you announce the winner: Chunk Champion of the Month.

Instead of coming up with chunks on their own, the learners can look through their coursebooks or other texts they have used in class. If they like the activity, you can repeat the contest on a regular basis.

Conclusion

Since most coursebooks do not really promote a lexical approach, apart from occasional work on collocations or idiom, it is vital we supplement our classes with lexical activities. “The Company Words Keep” is such a source of ideas and inspiration. You may also want to look up many contributions to Humanising Language Teaching on-line magazine (Davis, 2003, Kryszewska, 2003, 2003) at old.hltmag.co.uk especially in the Corpora ideas section.

References

Davis, P. & Kryszewska, H. (2012). The Company Words Keep. Peaslake England: DELTA Publishing.

Hoey, M. (2005). Lexical Priming. A New Theory of Words and Language. London: Routledge,

Davis, P. & Kryszewska, H. (2003). “Chunking for Beginners (Lexical Approach). Some Recipes.” Humanising Language Teaching.
Retrieved from old.hltmag.co.uk/mar03/less.htm

Kryszewska, H. (2003). “Chunking for language classes. Some lesson outlines”. Humanising Language Teaching.
Retrieved from old.hltmag.co.uk/sep03/mart5.htm

Kryszewska, H. (2003) “Why I won't say good-bye to the Lexical Approach”. Humanising Language Teaching.
Retrieved from old.hltmag.co.uk/mar03/mart2.htm

Lewis, M. (1993). The Lexical Approach. Hove: LTP.

Lewis, M. (Ed.). (1997). Implementing the Lexical Approach. Hove: LTP.

Miller, G. A., “The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information”. Psychological Review vol. 101 no. 2 : 243–352. Retrieved from
www.psych.utoronto.ca

Nattinger J.R. & DeCarrico, J.S. (1992). Lexical Phrases and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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