The Influence of the Individual Learning Styles in Second Language Learning: How Inclusive Can Teaching Strategies Be?
Olga Christodoulou, Greece
Olga holds an undergraduate degree from Aristotle University in Thessaloniki in English Language and Literature. She also holds an MA in Inclusive Education from UCL Institute of Education, London UK. Currently she is a Lecturer of Inclusive Education, at the BA (Hons) English and English Language teaching of the University of Greenwich, offered in New York College, Thessaloniki, Greece. E-mail: ol.christodoulou@gmail.com
Menu
Introduction
First language acquisition
Second language learning and factors affecting learning styles
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences theory
Inclusive teaching strategies
Conclusion
References
The language learning process, whether it is the first or the second language to be acquired, has been the center of various debates and discussions during the past decades. This fascinating aspect of human development shares characteristics that are both unique and universal. Unique in that each human being manages learning in a different way and universal as all humans acquire their mother tongue in a more or less similar way. Several studies have been carried out indicating the similarities that are seen in the early language of children all over the world. From the cooing and gurgling sounds of a baby, the babbling stage (Lightbown and Spada, 1999:2), the telegraphic speech they produce until the mastering of the basic language structures, the process followed is the same. What happens though as far as the second language learning is concerned? In this case, elements of differentiation among the learners take place. The way each person learns a language can be affected by various elements such as aptitude, motivation, cognitive style, intelligence, age, personality, learner preferences. These are indicative of the variety of factors that can influence the learning process. Moreover, in 1983, Professor Howard Gardner developed his Multiple Intelligences theory in which he establishes seven different ways through which an individual can learn a language. Therefore, the learning process can be affected by various factors, but it would be simply impossible to analyze all of them. Can the afore mentioned aspects though affect not only the learning but the teaching strategies as well? How inclusive can a language teacher be when facing such a variety of learning styles? The aim here will be to explore the differentiation that characterizes individual language learners claiming that the teacher should be adaptable to all individual styles and preferences. Moreover, Gardner’s theory will be challenged while arguing that a more holistic way of teaching and learning should be incorporated.
The first language acquisition is a quite complex process for children. Research has shown that this process undergoes several stages, which could be similar for children “in different language areas of the world” (Fromkin and Rodman, 1998:319). Of course the early cries and the gurgling noises of a newborn cannot be considered language. They are just responses to their various needs and instincts, such as hunger. Beginning with the babbling sounds, the child starts to form his language awareness, depending on the input that they receive from their environment. Most one-year-old children produce their first words and they “seem to go through the one word=one sentence stage. These one-word ‘sentences’ are called holophrastic sentences.” (Fromkin and Rodman, 1998:322). In their effort to acquire the language and communicate with their environment, children use only one word to express concepts that will later be expressed by sentences and phrases. Following this stage, children start to combine the holophrastic utterances into two-word sentences.
As analysed in the previous section, first language acquisition shares common characteristics among the learners around the world. What is the case of second language learning though? Before moving to the analysis of the different learning styles that occur, I would like to draw a distinction between the terms ‘acquisition’ and ‘learning’. Although I believe this dissociation seems to be rather strict, many specialists argue that the first language is acquired naturally and unconsciously whereas the second one is learned through instruction and consciously (Oxford, 1990:4). From my point of view these two elements merge. The mother tongue is undoubtedly acquired spontaneously, but it is also a product of instruction. On the other hand, it is really difficult for a second language learner to attain knowledge for a new language in the same way he has learned his mother tongue as the element of the environmental influence is absent. Focusing now on the second language learning process, there are many factors affecting each person’s learning style.
“Language learning styles are the general approaches used to learn languages” (Oxford, 1995:34). This is the broad definition describing the way through which learning a language is realized. Trying to elaborate on this statement, it is important to say that many elements pervade throughout the learning process affecting the learner’s general approaches. This implies individual differences, which means that every student learns in a different manner. In this article, the focus will be on the aspects of motivation, self-esteem, anxiety, age and the learners’ preferences, elements that influence the way learners approach a new language.
Motivation
“Corder’s phrase, ‘Given motivation, anyone can learn a language’ brings out the importance of motivation and the way it can overcome unfavourable circumstances in other aspects of language learning” (Skehan, 1989:49). It is actually quite difficult to define the term ‘motivation’. It would be easier to examine the ‘motivated’ learner meaning the one that is eager to engage himself in learning activities and is willing to progress (Ur, 2005:274) Motivating and encouraging students can prove to be one of the most important factors affecting second language learning. It is already difficult for most students to study a new language. Providing motives to a learner can increase their efforts and keep their interest at a high level. But how exactly can a student be motivated? Children get bored very easily. It is crucial that the materials used during the instruction are interesting not for the teacher but primarily for the student. Apart from the materials provided, the teaching methods used should also spark students’ interest and create an inclusive environment for all.
Usually there is a distinction, among others, made between two types of motivation, that is the intrinsic and the extrinsic. By the former it is implied that learners have the desire to engage in the learning process for its own sake. By extrinsic it is meant that several ‘external’ factors influence the learner and the teachers is not always aware of them. Such factors can include learners' parents, their peers or learners' wish to succeed in an exam (Ur, 2005:277). I believe that usually young learners are willing to learn for learning’s sake and that as they grow up to become adolescents they abandon this intrinsic motive. Moreover, motivation is strongly interconnected with rewarding. If a student is rewarded even for the minimum of his effort, this is a strong motive for him to achieve even more. Finally, what is also important are the students’ goals, meaning the reasons why he wants to learn the second language. If the learner has a particular goal to achieve, then his efforts are willingly guided towards his target.
Self-esteem
So far the element of motivation was explored in terms of the effect this has on individual learning styles. A motivated student is likely to succeed. And if he succeeds, his self-esteem is high. So, the aspects of motivation and self-esteem are closely connected. It is obvious that if a learner constantly faces failure, his self-esteem will be presumably low. This seems to me as a vicious circle that keeps going as these issues inevitably affect each other. Dweck, quoted by Flutter and Rudduck, argues that “pupils who are less confident in their abilities as learners are particularly vulnerable to loss of motivation when continually faced with poor results” (Flutter and Rudduck, 2004:10). The continued failure in learning creates disappointment to the learners as they accredit this to their lack of ability. Failure could be attributed to the poor teaching strategies conducted in a classroom or to the methods used that could possibly not support or reinforce the students’ learning style. Therefore, it is essential for the student to feel that he can succeed and that language learning is not an obligation but an enjoyable journey. It is the teacher’s role to increase the learner’s expectancy of success (Dornyei, 2001:57) by providing manageable tasks during the instruction. Children like what they are good at. The element of self-esteem is extremely important as the learner feels satisfied with what he has achieved. Reid aptly points out that “it is important that tasks, indeed all learning experiences, are directed to developing the student’s self-esteem” (Reid, 2005:11). The teaching methods and strategies that could promote a successful and inclusive learning outcome will be discussed later on.
Anxiety
Moving on to the next factor that influences second language learning, it is easy to understand that this element, anxiety, is closely related to the ones mentioned already. As far as I can view and interpret anxiety, it is linked with motivation and self-esteem. If a learner is not motivated, then he is most likely subject to failure which means low self-esteem and self-confidence which inevitably leads to the element of anxiety. Robinson presents the results of a study conducted by Macintyre and Gardner, which show that “anxiety-arousal can lead to poor L2 performance” (Robinson, 2002:64). Others argue that anxiety can lead to better performances on the students’ behalf, meaning that it would encourage them to be more productive. Indeed, many learners admit that they learn better when they are under pressure, especially adolescents and adults. But how true can that be for younger students? In order for somebody to be motivated due to his anxiety, he must be able to control and handle it so that the student could ‘take advantage’ of it. In my opinion, adult students could control their anxiety, but I strongly believe that this is not the case with young learners. The latter view the second language learning process as an anxiety provoking and threatening procedure. The children’s psychology is very important for their effective learning and this is a key point that is usually neglected by teachers. The assessment procedures, the comparison of oneself with the peers, the fear of making a mistake and the relationship with the teacher (Dornyei, 2001: 94) are some of the important elements that most frequently create anxiety to language learners.
Age
So far the issues of motivation, self-esteem and anxiety have been discussed as the ones that affect second language learning. Another variable that should be taken into consideration is that of age. How can age therefore influence the language learning process? Many specialists have argued that the earlier a child is exposed to a new language, the better he will learn it. From my experience and from what currently exists in the educational system in Greece, where I come from, children are forced to learn their first foreign language, that is English, in Grade 3 and then the second foreign language that is either French or German in Grade 5. Many scientists have argued that “there is a time in human development when the brain is predisposed for success in language learning” (Lightbown, Spada, 1999: 60) forming the Critical Period Hypothesis. By this, it is stated that young children learn better and more efficiently. On the contrary, there are studies made proving that adults reach high level of proficiency even if they have exceeded the critical age period. What I personally believe is that in terms of mastering the native-like accent, the sooner the child is exposed to the new language, the better it is. Of course adults will be able to handle and operate their learning differently since they are more aware of what they want, but it is quite difficult to master the accent the way native speakers do. In my opinion, children should be taught the second language from a young age. They should be motivated not because the learning is exam-oriented, as it usually happens with adults, but because they can explore the magic of learning a new language.
Learner preferences
Learners have their own way of learning. This means that they have certain preferred patterns for learning new material. As it will be extensively described later by analyzing Howard Gardner’s theory, is has been claimed by many scientists that each person has a better way of acquiring new information. This is what is actually described as the ‘learning style’, a term that Reid, as quoted by Lightbown and Spada, defines as the one used to “describe an individual’s natural, habitual and preferred way of absorbing, processing and retaining new information and skills” Lightbown and Spada (1999:58).
Many different theories and approaches have evolved regarding the ways through which learning is enhanced along with the teaching methods that should be used to promote it. One of the most important philosophies that focuses “on differences between learners and the need to recognize learner differences in teaching” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001:115) is the one developed by Howard Gardner labelled the ‘Multiple Intelligences model’. Gardner claimed that the brain consists of seven different types of intelligence that is the linguistic, the logical-mathematical, the spatial, the musical, the bodily-kinaesthetic, the intrapersonal and the interpersonal (Gardner, 1993:8-9).
To start with, the linguistic intelligence, as the term denotes, refers to a person’s ability to use language in order to accomplish certain goals or even the capability to learn a new language. As Gardner states, usually poets possess this type of intelligence (Gardner, 1993: 8) but the list could also comprise lawyers, writers and speakers. Moving on to the logical-mathematical intelligence, it consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically and carry out mathematical operations (Smith, 2002, 2008: URL) and it is most probable that doctors and engineers are characterized as functioning with this type of intelligence. As far as the spatial intelligence is concerned, it entails a person’s potential to form mental models of the world (Richards and Roberts, 2001:116), an ability that is normally found in painters, decorators and sculptors. The musical intelligence involves skills regarding musical patterns and it is strong in singers and composers. The bodily-kinaesthetic is the ability to solve problems by using one’s whole body or parts of it. The intrapersonal intelligence is described by Gardner as the “capacity to form an accurate, veridical model of oneself and to be able to use that model to operate effectively in life” (Gardner, 1993:9). It therefore entails the capacity for a person to understand himself together with his fears and feelings. The last of the seven intelligences is the interpersonal which describes the ability to work effectively and cooperatively with people, something that usually characterizes politicians and teachers.
“Any lesson, no matter what one is teaching, needs to cater for diversity” (Reid, 2005:91). The make-up of contemporary classrooms serves the diversity that Reid mentions in his piece of work. Children with different learning styles, children from various cultural backgrounds and others with learning difficulties form the audience that teachers have to deal with. In my opinion and from my personal working experience, it is quite difficult to cater for all the individual differences in a classroom and therefore provide inclusive solutions for the maximum results. There is much to be done in the field of inclusive practices on the teachers’ behalf so that they will be able to maximize their students’ potential.
The challenges that the teachers have to face in a classroom are many. In order for them to be effective, successful and to meet their learners' various needs and styles the first thing to be done is to listen to the students’ voices. Learners should have an active role in the learning process. Research has shown that a more focused dialogue in the classroom should be conducted so that students could participate in the decision-making process of the learning procedure (Flutter and Rudduck, 2004: 9). Learners should think, discuss and express their opinion about the learning process. The pupils’ role shouldn’t be considered as being a passive one, but instead the teachers should promote the idea of students as active participants in the learning process. Teachers could ask for students’ opinions not only as far as the actual teaching procedure is concerned, that is the different types of assessment for instance, but also questions regarding the “thinking and learning processes they are using” (Reid, 2005: 10). This is what is actually known as ‘metacognition’ and it’s a term referring to the learner’s ability to think about his own thinking, meaning the techniques he uses to enhance his learning. The overall conclusion as far as the students’ metacognitive abilities are concerned is that they can learn how to learn (Smith, 2002: 63), as far as this is promoted on the teachers’ behalf.
Effective learning and inclusive teaching strategies cannot be examined separately from the individual styles. As mentioned in a previous section, Gardner claims that each learner has a preference regarding the ways through which students take in information and these include visual, tactile, kinaesthetic etc (Oxford, 1995: 35). If for instance a learner is an acoustic type, it would be beneficial to provide him with tasks including listening exercises or music. Or if somebody was characterized as being a visual learner, it would be effective if he was presented with materials having to do with eye-contact. What is really striking and impressive and I have also experienced it both as a learner and as a teacher, is the point that Kroonenberg stresses while presenting the results of a research carried by O’Brien. The latter “discovered that 80% of instruction is delivered in an auditory fashion, even though less than 10% of the student population shows this as their strongest learning channel” (Kroonenberg, 1995: 77).
Unfortunately, classrooms are teacher-centred, with teachers delivering lectures without engaging the learners into the process. Is inclusive teaching promoted and developed in this way? I believe not. When there is a collision between the teaching and learning styles, most probably failure, frustration and demotivation will be created to the learners and the teachers will feel incompetent and incapable of supporting differentiation (Peacock, 2001: 1). The teacher’s role is to promote diversity and to create a thought-provoking environment in the classroom. In my opinion, a more holistic way of teaching should be developed in classes with activities and tasks that could include everybody, meaning the visual, the acoustic, the kinaesthetic learner etc. It is the teacher’s duty to help the learners develop all their approaches to learning, by exploring different learning channels.
As a continuation of the above points what really needs to be stressed out is that the instruction followed by the teacher should be differentiated according to the styles and differences the individual learners have. Carolyn Chapman and Rita King (2005) provide a list of practical ways through which differentiation and diversity could be reinforced and celebrated in the second language classroom. The most important thing for teachers to do is to learn as much as possible for each one of the students. The more the teacher knows about the students' styles, abilities, difficulties and preferences, the easier it is for him to shape a well-planned and organized instruction. Among others, there is a strong emphasis on the variety of teaching strategies that could be adopted. It is important for all teachers to understand that students learn effectively when their interests and styles are involved in the learning process. For example, in order to include all the learning styles (visual, acoustic etc) it would be good if when teaching one aspect of the language the teacher tries and sees it from all perspectives and creates tasks that would help all students. That is, create multiple activities to teach the same thing. It is not always applicable though to think of many tasks, but the more teachers can create, the better it will be for their students. As a conclusion to these strategies, what is actually important is to turn the focus from a teacher-centred instruction to a more student-based approach.
Differentiation and diversity should be a teacher’s main interest. Inclusive teaching strategies should be adopted in order to promote the learner’s various learning styles. What happens really often though is that the teachers tend to dominate in the classroom not only as a figure, but also by imposing subconsciously their preferred learning styles on their learners. As a person I have always been the so-called visual type. In order to learn or memorize anything I have to see it in a written form. Unfortunately, this is how I tried to teach my students without taking into consideration the different learning styles that they might have. Moreover, when having to teach children with dyslexia in particular or other learning difficulties, it is impossible to force them to become visual learners since they have problems with decoding the written language. In addition to that, teachers usually prefer to teach in the way they were taught while being learners. What really needs to be done here is for teachers to escape from what they are used to or how they themselves like the instruction to be carried out. They need to cater for the variety of styles the students have and then, by using efficient and interesting materials, to promote differentiation and variety in the classroom.
Chapman, C. & King, R. (2005). 11 Practical ways to guide teachers toward differentiation. National Staff Development Council, 26(4), 20-25
Dornyei, Z. (2001). Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. UK, Cambridge University Press
Flutter, J. & Rudduck, J. (2004). Consulting Pupils: What’s in it for schools?. USA, Routledge
Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1998). An Introduction to language. USA, Harcourt Brace College Publishers
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences: The theory and Practice. USA: Basic Books
Kroonenberg, N. (1995). Meeting Language Learners’ Sensory- Learning- Style Preferences. In: Reid, Joy M. (ed.) Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL classroom. USA, Heinle & Heinle Publishers
Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (1999). How languages are learned. Oxford, Oxford University Press
Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What every teacher should know, USA, Heinle & Heinle Publishers
----- (1995). Gender differences in language learning styles: What do they mean?. In: Reid Joy M. (ed.) Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL classroom. USA, Heinle & Heinle Publishers
Peacock, M. (2001). Match or mismatch? Learning styles and teaching styles in EFL. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 1-20
Rayner, S. (2007). A teaching elixir, learning chimera or just fool’s gold? Do learning styles matter?. Support for Learning, 22(2), 24-30
Reid, G. (2005). Learning styles and Inclusion. London, Paul Chapman Publishing
Robinson, P. (2002). Individual differences and Instructed Language Learning. Amsterdam/Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company
Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second language learning. London, Edward Arnold
Smith, M. K. (2002, 2008). Howard Gardner and multiple intelligences. The encyclopedia of informal education, Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm.
Ur, P. (2005). A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory. UK, Cambridge University Press
Please check the Creative Methodology for the Classroom course at Pilgrims website.
Please check the Special Needs and Inclusive Learning course at Pilgrims website.
|
