The Possible Selves in a Global Coursebook
Jana Kubrická, Czech Republic
Jana Kubrická teaches English for Specific Purposes and English for Academic Purposes at Masaryk University Language Centre, Brno, Czech Republic. Her research interests include aspects of identity in language learning and plurilingualism.
E-mail: kubricka@fsps.muni.cz
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Abstract
Introduction
Literature review
Methodology
Data
Conclusion
References
In this article the concept of “possible self” is introduced and applied in an analysis of New Headway, a global EFL textbook. The methods of critical discourse analysis and the concept of closed and open text were used to identify texts and exercises that have a potential to develop possible selves, i.e. ideal selves of readers. It was found that the characters portrayed in the textbook strive for wealth and fame. Closed exercises were identified as the most problematic carriers of ideological content. Finally, recommendations for teaching practice are offered.
Numerous recent studies in EFL and ESL indicate a close relationship between language learning and aspects of identity, both social and psychological. However, little attention has been paid to identities portrayed in EFL textbooks. Since the classroom provides settings in which learners construct their bilingual identities, teachers need to scrutinise the features of learning which influence identity construction, including materials used in their lessons. In this study the “possible selves” offered to learners in New Headway, a current global EFL textbook, are examined as it has been suggested that representation of the target community and its values, norms and aspirations underlies every EFL textbook and contributes to learners’ experience and construction of identity in the foreign/second language.
It has been recognised by many educational researchers that school textbooks entail messages which convey particular values, norms, beliefs and knowledge, such as neoliberalism (Chun, 2013) or heteronormativity (Gray, 2013). Therefore, it implies that textbooks represent results of negotiations of complicated power relations among ethnic, class, gender and other social groups (Apple, 1988). The ideological process of either representing or excluding certain knowledge, values and beliefs is called “selective tradition” (Apple & Christian-Smith, 1991) and is determined or significantly affected by not only ministries of education or their equivalents, but in more general terms also by the market, i.e. teachers, students and their parents. The demands of the market and authorities in terms of ideological content of textbooks are not always explicit, rather than that, they are “taken-for-granted”, or naturalised in the discourse. Apple (1990) in one of his highly influential books suggests that in order to socialise students into the normative structures required by our society the school has to legitimise a perspective on a society as essentially based on accumulation of economic capital. In other words, the school needs to continuously contribute to the acceptance of social rules learned earlier, it has to make this knowledge and rules seem legitimate and natural. The question that arises from this discussion is what means are used to render the reader passive and unaware of messages encrypted in the text.
In the context of EFL and ESL, the debates on the ideological “baggage” of teaching sparked up arguments about legitimacy of a number of aspects of teaching as well as ownership of English. In 1992 Phillipson famously introduced the term “language imperialism”, and soon after that Widdowson (1994) proposed that the global spread of English means that the language has become property of the whole world, rather than of a group of native speakers. This is a real issue for teachers, as it is no longer obvious what cultural content they should include in their teaching. It has also been indicated by research that ELT materials do not only present “global English content”, but also a methodology associated with an Anglo-Saxon view of communication, i.e. the methods of communicative approach (Kramsch & Sullivan, 1996). It seems, however, that teachers often adapt or modify materials from textbooks in ways that were not anticipated by writers (Gray, 2000). The approach of teachers who adjust materials, apply methods arising from the classroom culture and confront the content is considered to be more effective. Similarly, Widdowson (1994) refers to language proficiency as the ability of taking possession of the language and turning it to one’s advantage, an approach closely linked to nonconformity and associated with subversive reading.
What do we know about the way EFL teachers use textbooks? Based on Remillard’s meta-analysis (2005) there are four principal research perspectives on textbook usage, the first one being using curriculum material as following or subverting the text, next drawing on the text, thirdly use as interpretation of text and finally, use as participation with the text. Studies concerned with the usage of textbook thus identify a range of possible uses and varying teacher’s roles, most of them, however, establish that many EFL teachers rely on the textbook heavily and do not challenge its content, probably due to the fact that the textbook is seen as authoritative, accurate and normative (Cortazzi & Jin, 1999). The reason for this could be that non-native teachers of foreign languages may not feel confident enough to question validity of materials published by renowned publishing houses, or, more practically, turn to the textbook as a convenient and reliable source of structure, content presentation and practice for their courses. Olson (1980) contributes to the discussion on the authority of textbooks and points out that as authors of textbooks are “unknown” and distant they appear to come from a transcendental source, which renders them more credible.
Though the textbook may be seen as an authority by many, every reader will interpret it, as any other text, drawing on their own previous experience, which formed their attitudes, values and knowledge. The process of reading is then not a passive one but an interaction between the reader and the text. As Iser describes (1978), it is this dialectic process of interpretation that completes the text since the text itself can never contain the whole meaning. We know from the theory of literature that fiction (and therefore also fiction in textbooks) has got the power to stimulate and inspire the reader, who is forced to enter the imaginary world and re/define their own values as related to the portrayed characters (Harding, 1962). Likewise, Kumaravadivelu (1999, p.479) puts forward an idea that the text itself is less important than the process of engaging with it:
“[i]n the context of the ESL classroom, as in any other educational context, what makes a text critical has less to do with the way its content is constructed by the author (though it surely matters) than the way it is deconstructed by the teacher and the learner.”
According to Apple (1992) there are three basic responses to a text: firstly dominated reading, whereby the reader accepts the message as it is intended. This type of reading is related to Barthes’ description of a myth (2004), which represents a set of concepts fossilised into a form of common sense. The second type of reading, called negotiated response, means disputing specific statements of the text while accepting the dominant presentation. Thirdly, Apple describes oppositional response, i.e. rejection of the dominant presentation. What we intend to demonstrate in the present study, however, is not the reader’s range of possible responses, but the manipulative features of the text that can affect interpretation.
With regard to identity, investigations of the hidden curriculum (the norms and values conveyed by the textbook) in EFL textbooks frequently focus on gender identities, i.e. representations of femininity and masculinity (e.g. Evans & Davies, 2000). More recently, gender researchers find inspiration in poststructuralism and link gender to other categories, such as nationality, social class or disability to demonstrate that various social categories are interrelated in the reproduction of power relations (Knudsen, 2008). One of the most cited authors in EFL research on identity is Bonny Norton (1997, 2000, 2001), who conceives identity as a relationship between individuals and a more complex social world. Building on Bourdieu and his concept of symbolic power, Norton studies the power relations in social interactions between language learners and native speakers and argues that learners’ identities in the target community can restrict or facilitate opportunities for learning. Drawing on her findings from research into ESL learning among immigrants to Canada, the author suggests that the definition of communicative competence should be extended to include “the right to speak”. Norton’s work has been highly influential and it provides new insight into the social dimension of learning.
As the present study focuses on the social dimension of identity, we will discuss research on the topic in greater detail. In a recent investigation of EFL textbooks Tomlinson and Masuhara (2013, p.241) conclude that “there seems to be an assumption that all learners are aspirational, urban, middle-class, well-educated, westernised computer users”. Likewise, Shardakova & Pavlenko (2004) identify in their study of textbooks of Russians the most frequently depicted characters as white heterosexual members of the middle class. They argue that portraying or omitting the portrayal of certain students’ identities in a textbook can be related to the students’ investment or motivation for learning the target language and recommend that a more diverse array of gender and social identities should be included to motivate and empower a wide range of learners. Gray (2010) argues that textbooks of English often impose on learners around the world discourses that are typical of commerce and neoliberalism. He examined the topic of work in several recent global EFL textbooks (including Headway) and found out that the identity of portrayed characters often includes dimensions of individualism, entrepreneurship and flexibility in the labour market.
The patterns of thinking about the world the textbook presents are the subject of this study since they constitute a part of motivation for learners. To be more specific, what we focus on are the “possible selves” the textbook offers to readers. The concept was introduced by Markus and Nurius (1986) as a certain representation of the self in future states, which can exert a significant influence on individual’s behaviour. As Dörnyei (2009) points out, learners can no longer be motivated solely by referring to the target language community, since its boundaries have become blurred as a result of globalisation. Instead, learners can consciously develop ways of identification with their “possible selves,” i.e. the ideal selves they would like to become. If, let us assume, one’s ideal self is fluent in a foreign language, then this ideal self is a powerful motivational factor. However, there are several conditions that must be observed to maximise the motivational impact of the ideal self, among them primarily the availability of the self-image. To put it simply, possible self can function as an effective motivational factor only if the individual perceives it as actually possible and available (see Eco [2010] and his concept of possible world).
The main method used in this textbook analysis is critical discourse analysis. The method builds on Foucault’s definition of discourse as a distinctive system constructed by recurring messages and formulations across texts (Foucault, 1972). This system then gives rise to subjects and worlds with specific rules about what can and what cannot be said in a particular world. Foucault’s ideas are inspirational even today in research on the hidden curriculum as discourses convey representations not only of what the world is like, but also of what the world could (not) be like.
We understand discourses as not only abstract, but also materialistic practices, due to the fact that they are used in a society for the purpose of recognition and identification. We can say that they can be used for navigation and thus help form culture and society (Gee, 2011). Similarly, Fairclough studies how texts influence social practice by means of discursive practices. He also emphasises change, when texts are seen as elements of social events.
Most immediately, texts can bring about changes in our knowledge (we can learn things from them), our beliefs, our attitudes, values and so forth. They also have longer-term causal effects – one might for instance argue that prolonged experience of advertising and other commercial texts contributes to shaping people’s identities as ‘consumers’, or their gender identities. (Fairclough, 2003, p.8)
Critical discourse analysis is an eclectic method, in this study we mainly analyse the features which are recognised as potential sources of ideological content, i.e. transitivity (the use of active and passive voice, nominalisation, etc.) and modality of statements (expressions of necessity, possibility, etc.); the concept of presupposition (an implicit assumption taken for granted by a reader) and connotations (associated meanings of a word). (For more on linguistic functions, see e.g. Halliday, 1985).
For this specific investigation we also employed a method of text analysis based on a distinction between closed and open text (cf. Eco, 1979). This concept was adapted for research by Luke (1989) as an analytical tool which can capture the normative content of text. This method focuses on how semantic structures operate to evoke reader response and produce messages, or in Eco’s words (1979) how text ‘dictates interpretation’ and what possible worlds it produces. The terms of closed and open text are described as one that turns reading into a process of mere recognition and agreement and one that invites criticism and reinterpretation, respectively (Luke, 1989). Naturally we cannot claim that a closed text strictly determines its interpretation as it can be decoded in an unconventional or subversive manner, however, a text can include elements that restrict its interpretation and that is what we focus on in the analysis.
In the study we analyse selected texts from four student’s books of the textbooks New Headway, specifically elementary (I) (2006), pre-intermediate (II) (2007), intermediate (III) (2003) and upper-intermediate (IV) (2005). Headway is a global bestseller and according to Koláčková (2011) it is also the most frequently used textbook in high schools in Brno. An analysis of other textbooks is beyond the scope of this study. For this study we selected only texts that involved the dreams and aspirations of characters.
We attempt to answer the following research questions:
- What possible selves are offered to readers?
- How do the texts manipulate the reader?
The first example closely related to the concept of possible selves comes from New Headway I. Eleven-year-old Jack is dreaming about becoming a famous footballer (soccer player) in one of the best football clubs in the world. He is planning to retire at the age of 35 to bring up his two sons, who should eventually become famous footballers, too. 58-year-old Danny hopes to be able to climb Mount Everest when he retires, he is also going to learn to dive, travel the world and write a book about his adventures (p.90). 70-year-old Edie is looking forward to a cruise: “Last year I joined a travel club for people my age. It’s marvellous! I really enjoy meeting new people and seeing new places. I’m looking forward to going on a world cruise with my friend Margaret.” (New Headway II, p. 119) The dreams of other depicted characters are similar, e.g. Joe would love to play in a rock band. All the characters are ambitious and expect that their dreams will be fulfilled: “In five or ten years’ time I would like to have my own business and work for myself, like my father. (…) In my dreams I see myself at 40 running a successful gardening company with about 20 employees.” (New Headway II, p.114).
The worlds of the textbook are associated with travelling and other leisure time activities, often extravagant and costly, e.g. in a listening task mentioned above Danny talks about his plan to go to Nepal and climb Mount Everest. As a follow- up activity students are asked to match countries with activities, such as watching whales, taking pictures of lions or scuba diving. In the final activity students have to come up with places they would like to visit and give the purpose of the trip. The example again refers to a banal activity: “Why are you going to Paris? – To go shopping.” (New Headway I, p.93)
Another exercise that promotes wealth aims to practise verb forms have/have got (New Headway I, p. 76). Students are supposed to work in pairs, act out that they are both famous film stars and find out who is richer by asking questions about each other. To illustrate: one of them owns 5 boats, 50 cars, has 25 servants and 150 million dollars, etc. The underlying assumption is that it is normal for film stars to be extremely rich. This assumption is further supported by an article on John Travolta, whose residence is described as a dream come true: “His sumptuous Florida home, which is built in the style of an airport terminal building, is the ultimate boys’ fantasy house made real.” (Headway IV, p. 71) This article draws on genres of lifestyle magazines which portray celebrities, it even includes gossip from neighbours who have to put up with the noise produced by Travolta’s jet planes. The article thus satisfies the demand for images of celebrities in a similar way tabloids do by creating an illusion of shared intimacy with a celebrity (Lawrence, 2009).
Dreams about ownership of things are also the main subject of the following conversation: “Oh boy! What would you give to drive one of those?! – If I won the lottery, I’d buy the Aston Martin. – I wouldn’t. I’d go for the Ferrari. - In your dreams.” (Headway IV, p. 137). Conditional sentences open up excellent opportunities for defining one’s possible self, in this case the ideal self lives in luxury on a private island: “If I had £5million, I’d buy an island.” (Headway III, p. 64).
An example of a closed exercise is one where students read a conditional sentence and have to contradict it:
“Complete each of these sentences to show the real situation.
If I had a lot of money, I’d travel around the world.
(But unfortunately, I don’t have a lot of money.)
If I had a car, I’d never catch a bus again.
(But unfortunately…)
If I didn’t have to go to work today, I’d go to the beach.
(But unfortunately…)” (Headway III, p. 64)
In the above exercise students are manipulated into formulations in which they express their regrets at not being wealthy. As the exercise does not allow any alternative reading, they must accept the implied positions, otherwise, they would not be able to complete it complying with the instructions.
A controversial topic that seems to be effectively incorporated into the textbook is lottery and gambling, in this context presented as a harmless flutter. In an article called “Who wants to be a millionaire? We do”, winners of the lottery describe how they have handled their new life situation (Headway III, p. 66). Although the text is seemingly balanced by presenting both positive and negative aspects of winning a large amount of money, we do not find any doubt or a statement that would associate betting with other forms of gambling that point to psychological and social problems it may lead to.
In another text (Headway IV, p. 139) related to gambling characters regularly bet money and again there is no indication of foolishness of such behaviour, as though it is a normal part of life: “I do the lottery every week and never win a thing. – Me neither. That’s life.” It should also be noted that even though the authors admit that the vast majority of people who bet their money will never win, they still do not criticise it or suggest that it probably is not a sensible thing to do.
The third text on gambling is called “Politeness doesn’t pay!” (Headway IV, p. 96) and it features Sozos from Australia. This man once allowed an old lady to jump the queue, which allegedly led to an unfortunate event – the lady bought a winning ticket in the lottery (supposedly instead of Sozos). Not only does the text convey a clear message to students that “politeness doesn’t pay” (however ironically it was meant), but it also creates a slightly disturbing (and hardly plausible) picture of the system of lottery in Australia where tickets are bought in a specific order. The aim of the exercise is to practise past modal verbs and so the correct sentence students will eventually inevitably utter is: “Sozos shouldn’t have allowed the old lady jump the queue.” The message of the above exercises is clear – students should follow their dreams no matter how persistent or even rough they would have to be in the process.
The examples above demonstrate a range of manipulative techniques used in the textbook and means of developing students’ possible selves. That is also the sole purpose of this paper as it would be problematic (and not possible given the extent of the article) to assess the ideological profile of the textbook as a whole.
In this paper we attempted to demonstrate the manipulative potential of the content of an English foreign language textbook. It was found that in several texts and exercises the textbook promotes the ideal self that desires wealth and fame at almost any price (cf. Gray, 2010), it is also disturbing that the textbook unreservedly promotes betting. Students’ possible selves can be developed by closed exercises, which are in some cases found to be very problematic in terms of possible ideological investment. In Freire’s words:
“[t]he more students work at storing the deposits entrusted on them, the less they develop the critical consciousness which would result from their intervention in the world as transformers of that world. The more completely they accept the passive role imposed on them, the more they tend simply to adapt to the world as it is and to the fragmented view of reality deposited on them.” (Freire 1970, p.73)
Teachers should therefore make effort to take a critical stand, include texts with transformative potential, challenge and dispute covert messages. Teachers should also allow students to create their own context of use which corresponds to the values of the given culture or society. Advanced students also can and should be more involved in text selection processes. We believe that this approach will render lessons not only more enjoyable, but also more effective as the students will develop their bilingual identities and eventually “own” the language they are learning.
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Textbooks
Soars, L., & Soars, J. (2006). New Headway: elementary student’s Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Soars, L., & Soars, J. (2007). New Headway: pre-intermediate student’s book. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Soars, L., & Soars, J. (2003). New Headway: intermediate student’s book. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Soars, L., & Soars, J. (2005). New Headway: upper-intermediate student’s book. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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