Humanising Language Teaching
Year 4; Issue 2; March 02

Using sentences for grammar practice: raising the importance of equal opportunities

by Gerard Paul Sharpling

In this article, I would like to focus on a common activity in language teaching classrooms: giving students grammar exercises for controlled practice and going through them in class. On the face of it, this would seem to be a very simple activity, which is endemic in language teaching that it hardly needs to be questioned further. However, the very 'innateness' of this kind of exercise in the classroom means that it might be too unquestioningly accepted. Feminist critics have shown, for instance, that language is conventionally organised around male concerns, and that female thought cannot truly come into being because it is compelled to follow the lines imposed by men (Leclerc, in Moi 1987). Thus, the very strategies employed in grammar exercises might be seen by some as being exclusive. More recently, Sunderland et al (1994) have demonstrated the way in which the 'exclusiveness' of language is reflected in language teaching materials themselves. Women in course materials, they argue, are either absent, disempowered or stereotyped in terms of their relationships and professional lives. The exclusiveness of language may also be seen to discriminate against people with disabilities, or those from ethnic groups, or some social classes. Because of this apparent, continued marginalisation of so-called minority groups, the world picture presented within grammar exercises may easily be seen to be false or artificial, upholding a model of elitism which pertains to a different age from our own. Two other questions which this article addresses are why it is important to address the issue of equal opportunities in the first place, and how this might be achieved in classroom teaching.

Grammar and authority

'Grammar' not only provides the building blocks through which meaningful sentences can be constructed, but it supplies an illusion of authority and a statement of absolute truth. Grammar itself may be seen as a 'colonial' discourse, which strictly lays out the terms and conditions to which newcomers must conform in order to be or become linguistically civilised. One of the main dangers of this is that grammar may become a 'straightjacket' which saps the creativity of the writer. However, the mechanisms by which grammar becomes imparted may also become imperialistic in terms of the sort of world view which they project. Such projections range from mere blandness (the unconscious assumption that everyone is the same) to the direct unwillingness to recognise individual difference.

This point may be demonstrated by referring to the simple present tense. This tense provides the means by which one can speak about 'now'. However, it also allows one to 'talk about permanent situations or about things that happen regularly, repeatedly or all the time' (Swan, 1995, 444). Similarly, modal verbs of ability not only allow one to talk about what people can and cannot do, but they enable a 'defecit model' to be set up: that is, a model which describes people by lack of ability, either directly or by omission.

Crucially, grammar exercises devised to develop the use of the simple present tense or modals of ability, for instance, will not only permit present time to be spoken about, or degrees of capacity. They will reflect commonly accepted states of permanence and unchangeability within society, and within the teacher's or author's unconscious. These views may be culturally endemic, and may be either passively accepted or, indeed, actively internalised by students, leading to the construction of a spurious 'cognitive model': a mental representation of our knowledge about the world (Goddard and Patterson, 2000). It is possible to think of this cognitive model as becoming fossilised over a lengthy period, so that in adulthood, it becomes more difficult to challenge it and habits and prejudices become dangerously entrenched.

The declarative sentence

In the students' minds, at least, there seems to be a direct sense of 'authority' in the very word 'grammar'. Grammar rules, they feel, are a declaration of truth and 'absoluteness'. The basic unit of grammar instruction is still the single 'model' sentence, a legacy of the grammar translation method which characterised the teaching of Latin. Each single sentence focussed on is in some way 'exemplary', and most often declarative, not only proclaiming truth about its own linguistic structure, but about a perception of the world which goes beyond that structure.

To demonstrate this point, a random example may be considered, drawn from the Collins Cobuild Students Grammar (1991). This example demonstrates the use of the past continuous for long, interrupted past actions:

He .......... (drive) at over 100 kilometres an hour when the accident........ (happen).

The grammatical function of this sentence is sufficiently clear, and the sentence itself seems relatively uncontentious. However, one might take issue with the fact that 'he' is used as the pronoun. Of course, it may be true that men tend to drive faster and less carefully than women, and are likely to have more accidents, which explains why their insurance premiums are often higher. However, this sentence might also imply that women are incapable of driving as fast as men, a fact which is both biologically and conceptually deniable, but which remains fixed within the minds of many. The sexist label 'women drivers' is still all too evident.

If the above sentence is a relatively trivial example, the following sentences, drawn randomly from recent language teaching publications, may be more contentious: 'I think she is beautiful'; 'Philip speaks six language fluently' (would this be possible?); 'She's going to the university to do French' (why not engineering or business?). All of these sentences play on stereotypical differences between men and women. While few sentences these days actively discriminate against people with disabilities, too few of them reflect the coping strategies employed, say, by wheelchair users, or present positive images of non-traditional families or relationships. On the other hand, we can easily find relatively banal, trivial sentences in best selling grammar practice books, such as the following: 'Watch this, mum, I can stand on one leg'.

It is easy, too, to find examples in such books of ability deficit, such as observable in the following pairs of sentences: 'Peter knows French and he knows Spanish too'; 'Mary speaks English but she doesn't speak Russian'. There is frequently a presence gender dimorphism (Paechter, 1998, 48), in which actions are prescribed in advance according to set criteria, and in which anyone deviating from prescription is labelled as problematic. Examples of dimorphism may be seen in the following sentences: 'Sean was about to kick the ball'; 'Nancy was about to do the housework'; 'Bill agreed that he would quite like to be the chairman'.; 'George is a detective', 'Dave is a gardener'. Harmless in themselves, the plethora of such expressions soon constructs a one-sided picture of human exploits and establish boundaries which are difficult to break down.

The dangers of 'colonialism'

Concerns about the worldview presented by grammar sentences extend beyond these issues of stereotypical representation and omission, to encompass relatively politicised ways of observing society. Pennycook (1998) has drawn a crucial historical link between English language teaching and the legacy of colonialism. Applying this model to grammar sentences might seem somewhat unusual, but it can be very revealing. Typically, in grammar exercises, colonialism is present through an assertion of Western norms, and a consequent omission of reference to other varieties of English and to the rest of the English speaking world, as well as the failure to portray positive images of developing nations. In most of the major grammar practice books, for instance, a somewhat relentlessly Western world-view is portrayed, where schooling and work are the norm, where families live in houses , and where most people are middle class. Names, for example, are relentlessly Western (Peter, Michael, Joe, Eddie, Eileen, Karen, Tim, Bill, and the ever present John and Mary). Meanwhile, the instability of developing nations is frequently foregrounded at the expense of cultural contribution and specificity, such as in the sentence 'The island has over twelve parties competing for power'. Meanwhile, Western norms of housing and education are taken as a basic reference point: 'Jack lives in a flat in Park Street', with little reference to the diversity of experiences within the English-speaking world. In short, grammar practice books often gloss over diverse cultural contributions, even if they do not actively seek to impose cultural norms on others.

A further way in which colonialism can become manifest in grammar books is the way in which sentences are often self-referential, and constructed around the trials and tribulations of trying to learn to speak English properly (and often failing miserably). Sentences such as 'I've been working on this exercises since 9 o'clock' and 'Is Ken going to take the examination?' might seem relatively innocuous, but others such as one I heard used by a colleague, 'No matter how hard she tried, she couldn't master the grammar' abounds in exclusive precepts. (Even the word 'master' here recalls the worst failings of colonialism and also gender domination). Thematically, this raises the issue of grammar (and language learning generally) as a time-consuming matriculation exercise: a way of controlling and shaping uncivilised races into conformism. Perhaps the reverse should be encouraged: learning a language leads to greater flexibility and freedom. The way in which grammar sentences provide language for language's sake, divorced from real world meanings, has been satirised by Eugene Ionesco, a Romanian émigré, in his play The Bald Primadonna. The illogicality of the opening discourse between Mrs. and Mrs. Smith (who, for example, tell the time perfectly although there is a clock on the wall), was based originally on the absurdity of the English textbook.

The importance of equal opportunities in 'grammar sentences'

At this point, it is important to consider whether the need to construct positive images of diversity should receive prominent consideration in the teaching of grammar. One view often advanced against an inclusion of social diversity is that English language teaching materials should be generalisable (and of course, maximally marketable). Whilst diversity is a crucial characteristic of British society, aspects of this diversity may be less acceptable in other cultures. and this leads to the devising of course materials which are trite and trivialised. Recent attempts to counteract this trend deal capably with issues such as new citizenship and ethnicity in Britain, but rather less confidently with aspects of sexuality and disability. For example, one recent book on British culture, appearing in 2000, fails to present any positive images in its chapter on sport of how wheelchair users participate actively in sporting activities, and how sport in Britain has become increasingly inclusive. A further argument against worrying about equal opportunities in grammar sentences is that the intensity of the engagement with the aspect of grammar being studied reduces the wider world-view portrayed by grammatical model sentences to a secondary significance.

The opposing view, which is the one I adopt here, is that teachers have a responsibility to reflect accurately aspects of diversity within their own culture. Woodward and Ross (2000) have argued similarly for an increased awareness of equal opportunities within higher education. For them, equal opportunities goes beyond mere 'political correctness', and becomes a means by which perceptions of society that systematically demarginalise oppressed or disadvantaged groups may be gradually transformed. This demarginalisation challenges the very process of English language teaching itself, and might force teachers to re-evaluate the purpose of the activities they select. There are further good reasons why we should be concerned with equal opportunities, even in aspects of teaching such as grammar exercises. The most important of these is that the very strength of the ELT classroom might allow possibilities for ethnocentrism to breed find expression. Addressing such challenges has a humanising value and importance, as it values each student and person within the wider community as an individual.

Applying equal opportunities to grammar sentences

So far, this article has argued that there is a need for a re-appraisal of how we teach grammar through exercises, so that the world-view presented by the sentences can be more inclusive. I shall now suggest some ways in which this approach might be implemented in classroom practice. First, however, I would like to argue that the unwillingness to address this issue may arise directly from the reluctance on the part of language teachers to deal with aspects of cultural identity and diversity in the classroom, especially at elementary and intermediate levels. This reluctance may derive from the view that this kind of awareness is sociological, and therefore, an academically complex topic which lies beyond the grasp of lower level students. However, it also implicitly suggests that learning a language and learning about culture are mutually exclusive activities, in which one progresses chronologically from language learning to the study of a nation's culture. This view is unconvincing since language and culture are indissociable. Texts and materials which open students' eyes to the complexities of the British culture are all too often reserved for advanced level coursebooks.

Carefully written grammar exercises, I will now argue, may play a small, yet significant role in transmitting a culture of equal opportunities. In composing model sentences which reflect greater cultural diversity, it might then be possible to raise consciousness with regard to individual differences within society, and to highlight the need to be sensitive to these issues. Some simple strategies may be employed at first. These might involve, for example, consciously adapting the pronouns or the persons within sentences, to move away from the traditional or stereotypes towards a more diverse appreciation of human behaviour. Some examples of model sentences which challenge stereotypes are as given follows. They are designed to convey the fact that very real chances are (or at least, should be) open to all individuals regardless of race, disability, gender or class.

PRESENT PERFECT

She has been working at the stock exchange since 1980.
Mohammed has been teaching in London for ten years now.
Marco has been working as a florist for a number of years.

CONCESSION CLAUSES

Although Omar suffered spinal injury last year, he has travelled to France and Greece. Despite a lack of money, Gheeta brought up her children very well. Sarfraz only joined the company last year, but has been promoted to branch manager.

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME OR PLACE

Maria became a train driver in 1978.
Tony stays at home with the children on a Thursday and Friday.
Jim works at the local nursery school.

RELATIVE CLAUSES

John, whose father was a builder, studied at Oxford.
Paul, whose father was a stockbroker, enjoyed working on the building site.

Useful though these kinds of sentences might be in breaking down stereotypical boundaries, it is also necessary to challenge the assumptions about language learning and colonialism that sentences embody through their declarative, grammatical construction. This may involve, for example, re-evaluating the importance of varieties of English, and the diversity (rather than specificity) of English speakers.

ARTICLES (DEFINITE, INDEFINITE, ZERO)

Mohammed delivered a powerful and moving speech.
Shu-fen spoke excellent English as she had lived in America for ten years.
The teacher advised Maria not to worry about making grammar mistakes.

In the above examples, eloquence is not merely reserved for middle-class, white speakers endowed with received pronunciation. It is accessible to all, as news broadcasts by the increasingly inclusive BBC demonstrate.

Some approaches to sexuality

As with citizens from ethnic groups and people with disabilities, lesbians, gay men and bisexuals come from diverse backgrounds and have wide-ranging opinions (http://www.lancs.ac.uk/users/equalopp/lang.htm). However, the general lack of awareness of homophobia among students of all ages, and the reluctance to discuss it have led to this type of discrimination being trivialised, though this can lead to severe repercussions ranging from victimisation to direct physical hostility. Political restrictions have conventionally been placed on the 'active promotion' of homosexuality in schools and culturally, issues of sexuality cannot always be comfortably dealt with in an English language teaching perspective, whether internationally and within English speaking countries. Thus, most English language teaching materials propound a consistently heterosexual perspective, with same sex relationships being promoted as the assumed norm. Many would, of course, argue that the language classroom is not the place to treat such issues of relationships. This might be because the acceptance of diverse sexualities would, in any case, preclude the need to discuss the subject at all. However, this seems rather like a kind of ethnocentrism by default, whereby in the interests of racial harmony, white individuals, for example, have failed to acknowledge black culture as existing in any real sense. In terms of grammar sentences, this might lead to expressions such as the following: 'Jane wanted Ken to come to her party'; 'Sally and David are in love'; 'I don't know Carol's husband'. In themselves relatively innocuous, these sentences are exclusive in terms of their repeated pattern of underlying heterosexual structure.

Clearly, in a language teaching situation, not all of these sentences would be comfortably reversible. While 'Mike wanted Ken to come to his party' might be acceptable to a class, 'Mike and David are in love' could legitimately be presented, though not all tutors or students would feel comfortable with it. The use of the word 'partner' would be helpful in the third example (rather than more clearly defined words such as 'wife', 'husband', 'boyfriend' or 'girlfriend', acknowledging that the partner might be masculine or feminine. Considering these points, some sentences which challenge compulsory heterosexuality might be formulated as follows:

CONDITIONALS

If Asif is free tomorrow, he'll go with his partner to see a film.
If only he'd met Phil earlier, his life might have been quite different.
I'd rather we invited both Joanne and her partner.
If you come to the party, you will have the chance to meet other people.

It would seem that the re-evaluation of issues of sexuality is relatively new, but in the interests of equal opportunities, these too need to be given more prominence so that sentences used in grammar exercises can represent a fuller picture of diversity.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it would seem legitimate nowadays for language teachers, as professionals in other areas of life, to question and challenge their assumptions about equal opportunities. This has been the purpose of this short article. This does not mean, however, that there is no place for humour or lightheartedness when presenting grammar points and providing model sentences, and it is important to differentiate between making a genuine effort to improve understanding of diversity and merely 'silly' political correctness. Nevertheless, one needs to be more aware of the influence one can have in portraying and shaping worldviews which are one sided, and sometimes, factually inaccurate. In increasing such a level of awareness, it may be possible to use grammar exercises in a more inclusive (and liberating) way.

REFERENCES

Collie, Joanne and Alex Martin.2000. What's it Like? Life and Culture in Britain Today. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Goddard, Angela and Lindsey Meân Patterson. 2000. Language and Gender. London: Routledge.

Mills, Sara (ed.). 1995. Language and Gender: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Harlow: Longman.

Moi, Toril (ed.). 1987. French Feminist Thought: A Reader. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Paechter, Carrie. Educating the Other: Gender, Power and Schooling. London: Falmer Press.

Pennycook, Alistair. 1994. The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language. Harlow: Longman.

Pennycook, Alistair. 1998. English and the Discourses of Colonialism. London: Routledge.

Sunderland, Jane (ed.). 1994. Exploring Gender: Questions and Implications for English Language Education. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall.

Swan, Michael. 1995. Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Vetterling, Mary (ed.).1981. Sexist language: A Modern Philosophical Analysis. Littlefield, Adams and Co.

Woodward, Diana and Karen Ross. 2000. Managing Equal Opportunities in Higher Education. Buckingham: Open University Press.