Translation and Humanistic Language Teaching

James W. Porcaro, Toyama University of International Studies, Japan

Introduction

In his essay "Language and The Human Spirit", Jim Cummins (2003) observes that "there is an inseparable linkage between the conceptions of language and human identity that we infuse in our classroom instruction." In the context of the instructional choices we make, he notes that we must examine "the extent to which the classroom interactions we orchestrate build on and affirm the cultural, linguistic, intellectual and personal identities that students bring to our classrooms." In the setting of English as a foreign language (EFL) instruction, particularly at college level, translation of literature in the native language of the students into English is an instructional means that can richly fulfill this humanistic educational endeavor as well as provide a strongly effective communicative language learning experience for the students.

Literary translation in EFL instruction

Translation of carefully selected passages from literature in their first language (L1) offers EFL students a unique opportunity to explore the dimensions of both languages and to develop their skills and style of written expression in English in ways that are both different from and beyond the products of standard composition in the second language (L2).

Duff (1989: 7) summarizes succinctly: "Translation develops three qualities essential to all language learning: flexibility, accuracy, and clarity. It trains the learner to search (flexibility) for the most appropriate words (accuracy) to convey what is meant (clarity)."

Rivers and Temperley (1978: 337) describe discerningly the translation process in an EFL setting. "The production of an acceptable translation into English is [for students]... a means for developing sensitivity to the meanings expressed in a stretch of discourse in one's own language and to the different linguistic mechanisms used by the two languages to convey these meanings."

In the translation process students need to think from the meaning to the words, letting thought shape language (Duff, 1981). At the same time, meaning itself is culture-specific and constructed with the background knowledge that one brings to the transaction with a text. Literary text in particular is inseparable from its social and cultural origins and the task of translation involves students first in an understanding of the L1 text with conscious application of their own L1 background. In their transaction with the L1 text they work to construct an equivalent written L2 (English) text that reproduces the greatest possible degree of meaning of the original text (Newmark, 1988a). Indeed, teaching translation of L1 literature into English turns on its head the customary approach of students' learning about the cultures of English-speaking countries in EFL instructional settings.

In the English language classroom generally, using content from students' own society and culture greatly facilitates, encourages, and motivates their use of the language and their self-expression, thereby promoting language acquisition and advancing growth in language proficiency. In translation instruction in particular, a judicious selection of L1 literary texts can be an informative and instructive encounter for students as well as serve as vehicles for language learning. As students are deeply engaged with the content of the literary text and its meaning through the translation process, they enhance their awareness and understanding of their own society and culture. Furthermore, they learn to extend that awareness and understanding to other peoples, cultures, and issues on a global scale wherein we all share a common humanity. Indeed, this experience starts in the classroom itself where a genuine collaborative process makes up the essential methodology for this kind of translation.

Background to Japanese-to-English literary translation course

For a period of ten years (1990-2000) in Japan I taught a course in Japanese-to-English literary translation at college level that was part of the EFL curriculum. (I still incorporate some literary translation work in writing courses that I teach here.) The students in these classes were mostly at low- and mid-intermediate levels of English language proficiency. I used very carefully selected excerpts of several pages from novels and short stories of prominent modern Japanese authors. Some are well-known around the world, such as Yasunari Kawabata, Yukio Mishima, and Natsume Soseki; others less well known outside of Japan include Kenji Miyazawa, Sawako Ariyoshi and Yuko Tsushima. I also included poetry translation in the course, using, for example, the works of Shuntaro Tanikawa, Machi Tawara and Akiko Yosano. These literary texts are very popular with students. They engage their interest and effort, and elicit the kind of language and personal involvement that I am describing in this article. Students feel a genuine sense of purpose and achievement to render a good translation of a work by a renowned author. In addition, working with these texts, students enhance their appreciation and enjoyment of fine literature in general.

My experience has been that students find satisfaction, reward, and enjoyment in the challenging task of literary translation from their native language into English. Moreover, the collective translation work of scores of students over the years, along with composition and academic writing coursework from a number of the same students for comparison, has provided me with convincing evidence of the effectiveness of translation instruction for foreign language acquisition and the development of English writing competence.

Collaborative translation process

In their translation work, students engage deeply in a process that involves the full range of basic language skills and the principle tenets of communicative language learning. In the context of EFL instruction, both process and product are given full attention in the translation endeavor. There is continual reading of the original literary text, along with drafting, consulting dictionaries, reflecting, conferring, collaborating, revising, polishing, and editing in the production of the individual final copies. Translation definitely is something that needs to be discussed and teacher-student conferencing and peer collaboration within a cooperative learning environment are cardinal components of the process. In pairs and small groups, students exchange their opinions and ideas regarding the interpretation of the original text and discuss various aspects of target language use such as word choice, syntax, style and the meanings conveyed by specific linguistic choices. They compare tentative translations, appreciating and criticizing them in the effort each to produce a more accurate and fluent version.

In conferencing with individual students on their translations the teacher willingly takes the role described by Zamel (1985: 96-97). "To respond by participating in the making of meaning means that we no longer present ourselves as authorities but act instead as consultants, assistants, and facilitators. Thus, rather than making assumptions about the text, taking control of it, and offering judgmental commentary... we need to establish a collaborative relationship with our students, drawing attention to problems, offering alternatives, and suggesting possibilities."

Indeed, in the process of L1-to-L2 literary translation, the students in fact are better placed than the native English-speaking teacher to construct meaning from their transaction with the L1 text. They are able to impart to the teacher meanings and deeper understanding of that text, while the teacher helps them to improve their English translations by pointing out the merits and insufficiencies therein and guiding them toward solutions to problems and more accurate and fluent expression of meaning. There is a unique form of two-way teaching and learning which involves a special sharing between the EFL students and the native English-speaking teacher founded on mutual acknowledgment and appreciation of both languages and cultures within a rewarding, interactive foreign language learning experience.

It is important to note that this literary translation methodology in EFL instruction is accessible to teachers with a limited command of the students' L1. See Porcaro (1998, 2001) for a full description of the methodology, including the role of the native English-speaking teacher. I explain how teachers with moderate proficiency in the students' native language can very effectively carry this out in a highly cooperative and collaborative learning environment. Some of the essential elements for success are: very judicious selection of texts for translation; close consultation with a reliable colleague who is a native speaker of the students' L1; employment of a translation writing process that includes concentrated teacher-student conferencing and student-student collaboration; and gradual accumulation of experience and expertise along with motivation, faith, and inspiration conveyed to the students.

Social themes and film

There are a number of social and personal themes addressed in the literary texts I have selected for students' translation work. For example, I have used several short stories and novels by Japanese women about Japanese women in various social and historical circumstances with the aim of focusing students' awareness and understanding on the lives and issues of women in their society. Another of the prominent themes has been growing up through childhood, adolescence and young adulthood in different settings and periods of contemporary and recent past Japanese history.

With such texts there is a special role for film in the translation process. Films based on novels that students have read can be "a tool to stimulate students' own critical appreciation of the original written text" (Ross, 1991: 147). Film can support students' transactions with an L1 literary text and the process of constructing an English translation of that text. It can activate and develop the schemata needed for a fuller and deeper understanding of the original text and thus lead to the language to translate that text accurately and effectively. Film engages the viewer both visually and verbally. With scenes that are faithful to the literary source, a film can convey informational content drawn from descriptions in the literary text and add to the involvement with characters, interactions, settings, events, circumstances, and symbols. It engages our thoughts and emotions and can distinctly motivate students in their translation task with the literary text itself. Fortunately, there is a very rich tradition of Japanese films from literature that enabled this instructional approach within my course. Certainly this would be true as well for other languages and cultures.

Poetry translation

Maley and Duff (1989: 9) have stated: "One of the most important conditions for learning a foreign language... is the opportunity to play with it, to pull it this way and that, to test its elasticity, to test and explore its limits. Poetry is par excellence the medium in which this can be done."

In this sense, reading poetry in their first language and writing it in English translation is an ideal task for EFL learners. The unique challenge of translating poetry takes learners a significant step further in their encounter with both languages. A reader's transaction with the text of a poem is unique. Learners are able to respond to it in their own way. The construction of meaning involves not only one's background knowledge and experience, but also one's feelings and emotions. Newmark (1988b: 165) asserts that "the main endeavor is to 'translate' the effect the poem made on [oneself]… However good as a translation, its meaning will differ in many ways from the original… It will have its own independent strength. A successfully translated poem is always another poem." With the very selective choice of Japanese poetry I have submitted to them, my students have really relished this challenge and experienced the pleasure of having "put into English the beauty [they] had touched in Japanese" (Beichman, 1997).

Conclusion

Literary translation, as outlined in this article, merits far greater attention and needs to be appreciated and applied on a far greater scale in the world of EFL instruction. Students working with selected texts from a rich field of literature in their native language can generate remarkable English language products through a comprehensive translation writing process. At the same time, this approach can effect an extraordinary coupling of language learning and the human spirit.

References

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Newmark, P. (1988b). A Textbook of translation. London: Prentice Hall.
Porcaro, J. (1998). Japanese literary translation in an English language program. The Language Teacher, 22 (12), 5-9.
Porcaro, J. (2001). A rationale for L1-to-L2 literary translation in college EFL instruction. JALT Journal, 23 (2), 248-268.
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