Editorial
This article was originally written for The British Council, Portugal and published in The Journal, Issue Nº8, October 1997. It was a sequel to "Getting them to Talk in English" published in The Journal, Issue Nº5, May 1996. It emphasizes the importance of language in the learning process and the fundamental role talk plays in that learning. 'Learning through talk' means children share knowledge with others and in turn that knowledge is enriched. As Vygotsky (1978) states: 'cognition develops through social interaction and the provision of a social context for problem-solving, forces children to formulate and express ideas verbally.'

Getting them to Read and Write in English: Seven to Twelve Year-olds.

Joan Foster, UK

Joan Foster is an EFL teacher, also at British Council, Lisbon. She is responsible for introducing Young Learners into The British Council in the 1980s and also co-ordinator for Young Learner classes throughout 1990s. Secondment 1993, to Southampton University under tuition of Prof. Christopher Brumfit, M.A in Education from the Open University, Milton Keynes, U.K. 2004/2005, Oral Storytelling tuition from "Biblioteca Municipal de Oeiras; Projecto Europeu - Histórias de Ida e Volta"

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Introduction
Activities
Classwork for 7/8/9 year-olds
Classwork for 10/11/12 year-olds
Acknowledgement
References
Appendix

Introduction

Although Reading and Writing were traditionally seen as more important than talk, research has shown over the last decade or so that 'children draw close links between their oral and literate experiences' and 'this combination provides a major driving force for their learning.' If we look at the process of learning rather than a particular learning product we can indeed see how closely integrated the four language modes are. It is a recursive process; one in which reading in one instance gives children opportunities to talk about new things and in another, oral discussions about a written text will provide more meaning and understanding for when they come to read and write for themselves. Reading and writing then are undoubtedly embedded in talk, not to be seen as separate issues. If we are getting pupils to read we are, at the same time, getting them to write and vice-versa, with talk inevitably predominant in the whole process. As Meek (1991) says: 'Literacy is about language and the primary form of language is of course speech.'(P.13). How then, can we put this complex procedure into practice in a Foreign Language Learning scenario, with young learners who may not yet be able to express their ideas orally in the target language, let alone read or write in it?

In my view, oral storytelling underlies all literacy; it is a firm prerequisite to reading and writing and should become a central part of their language learning. I would even go so far as to suggest 'a Narrative-based syllabus', using stories and poems as a foundation for most classroom work. Not only do stories make sense to all children but they also help them to sequence and organise their thinking. In addition this procedure is particularly helpful in developing oral fluency. Further, if talk is of major importance in learning, then the use of Mother Tongue in the process of learning L2 is equally of utmost importance for these young learners, particularly in the early stages (or even for as long as is needed). It was taboo in the mid 80s, however when faced with 'young beginners' I guiltily found use of mother tongue to be both asset and aid in the acquisition of L2.

Activities

With these two claims in mind I will describe how I have used well-known fairy stories with my Portuguese students. The materials are of a bilingual nature and although restricted to one particular story and representing 7/8/9 year olds and 10/11/12 year olds respectively, they can be exploited and used in various ways, at different levels and with different ages.

Basic material (can be used for both age groups) consists of: a set of six, large, coloured pictures depicting the story of "Little Red Riding Hood"; two written versions of the story, (a) bilingual, using a mixture of Portuguese (L1) and English (L2) and (b) totally in English (L2); a page of ten smaller pictures and a page of ten equivalent vocabulary items. (see images).

N.B. I use 'L1' (Mother Tongue) to refer to Portuguese and 'L2' (Target Language) to refer to English throughout this article. This implies that the lessons/ideas are transferable to any other two languages.

Classwork for 7/8/9 year-olds

With these two claims in mind I will describe how I have used well-known fairy stories with my Portuguese students. The materials are of a bilingual nature and although restricted to one particular story and representing 7/8/9 year olds and 10/11/12 year olds respectively, they can be exploited and used in various ways, at different levels and with different ages.

Basic material (can be used for both age groups) consists of: a set of six, large, coloured pictures depicting the story of "Little Red Riding Hood"; two written versions of the story, (a) bilingual, using a mixture of Portuguese (L1) and English (L2) and (b) totally in English (L2); a page of ten smaller pictures and a page of ten equivalent vocabulary items. (see images).

N.B. I use 'L1' (Mother Tongue) to refer to Portuguese and 'L2' (Target Language) to refer to English throughout this article. This implies that the lessons/ideas are transferable to any other two languages.

Classwork for 7/8/9 year-olds

Aim: To develop their literacy skills & increase their knowledge of L2 using L1 Time: Approximately two 50-60 minute lessons. The lessons presuppose they may 'know' some 'L2 classroom language' for asking about meanings of words in L2; they 'know' the story in L1 & possibly some of its vocabulary in L2; they can read and write in their own language.

Preparation

Make copies of the six large coloured pictures depicting the story of "Little Red Riding Hood". Make copies of the 'smaller pictures' page and the accompanying 'equivalent vocabulary' page. There are 10 items, on each page. You need to photocopy enough so that you can make 1 set of 10 'picture cards' and 1 set of 10 'vocabulary cards' per group of students. (Cut them up and paste on card for better handling and possible re-use). Option: make a large flashcard with the title of the story: "Little Red Riding Hood". Make copies of the bilingual written version of the story and/or of the L2 version according to your needs.

Procedure Lesson 1

1. Stick the large story pictures on the board/in a prominent place for the whole class to see. At this level place them in a sequence, which corresponds to the version of story being presented.
2. Elicit from the class what they think the pictures depict, (allow class to discuss this in L1). A monolingual L2 speaking teacher will have to be receptive as to when they have 'guessed' what the story is and consequently feed in the English: "Yes, it's the story of Little Red Riding Hood". A bilingual speaking teacher might use L1 at this stage. Whatever the case, the teacher should be sensitive to allow the knowledge of what the story is about to come from the pupils before acknowledging their responses, in L1 or L2. This can then be reinforced with the written version of the title in English (L2) - either on the board or using the large flash card previously prepared.
3. Create an atmosphere for storytelling, e.g "Are you sitting comfortably? I'm going to tell/read you the story of Little Red Riding Hood". Tell /read the bilingual version using the large pictures. This is an art and has to be done with a rhythm that captures the lilt and intonation of both languages in order to maintain the pupils' whole attention throughout; so if you feel you are unable to capture their interest in this way, have a bilingual colleague record the story for you on tape and play it. Listening to a story is a magical moment so it is a pity to miss this step. Non-L1 speaking teachers could either play the bilingual recording or read the L2 version, accompanying it with gesturing, pointing, making full use of body language and the pictures to convey meaning.
   
   N.B Main language focus is on actively 'learning' the 10 vocabulary items in L2. All ten have an L1 equivalent in the bilingual text, except for 'mother', 'basket of food' and 'tree'. Therefore you may want to pre-teach/emphasize these before moving on, or alternatively introduce them in step 4.
4. This step involves problem-solving around the bilingual text, (the non-L1 speaking teacher can also follow this stage). Put the students into pairs/groups; make enough copies of the text to be shared and just let them unravel the 'strange' story. Monitor the activity allowing them to apply any strategy, reading out loud/silently, using L1/L2 and asking for clarification if necessary. After a while, on observing their reactions, you may notice that some have already become aware of the equivalent vocabulary items. You will now be able to feed in the above-mentioned items by using the pictures. ('Look this is mother' [pointing at picture]', 'How do you say mother in [Portuguese]? 'etc.) This checking makes sure they have all, somehow, managed to 'translate' and understand the meaning of some of the 10 words. This moment is precious, as it not only allows them to become familiar with the story and the new language within a framework of their mother tongue, but also gives them the chance to employ individual strategies for learning.
5. At this stage remove the Large Pictures from view and introduce the small picture cards. You can use them in one or more ways. I suggest the following:
1. Give a set of 10 picture cards to each pair/group and ask the students to place them in the order of events in the story. While they are doing this, read the bilingual story out loud as many times as you feel it beneficial. Optionally you can then switch to reading the L2 story to them in the same manner.
2. Then give the word cards out and tell students to match them to the pictures.
3. Next get the pupils to use the cards for 'Pelmanism', a game in which both sets of cards are mixed and placed face down on a flat surface. Each pupil has a turn to try to pick up two matching cards, e.g. the word mother with the picture of 'mother'. You might want to set a time limit and act as arbiter. The pupil who has the most correct pairs 'wins'.

I consider the above to be about 50-60 minutes' 'work'. However, with an ongoing aim in mind, further lessons using the same theme and materials can consolidate and build onto these 5 stages.

Procedure Lesson 2

1. Revive the theme with another game of 'Pelmanism' (See step 5c,Lesson 1).
2. Next, with the class in pairs/groups, use the pictures and get them to try to retell the story. They may still be using L1 to do this so monitor them closely and encourage them to use, at least, the 10 new words in L2. Encourage classroom language to ask: "How do you say (L1 word) in (L2)? "How do you pronounce/say this word?" Go around the groups and join in telling the story naturally, feeding in words or even whole phrases to match the pictures; this particularly in areas where there is too much L1 being spoken or where they are reticent to speak at all.
3. Now return to the copies of bilingual text (step 4, lesson 1) but make extra copies so that each pupil has one. Tell them to find and CIRCLE the ten L2 lexical items in the text ('Red Riding Hood' being the first), then to look for mother tongue equivalents and UNDERLINE those. Monitor and help with this task. A further activity is to create bilingual dictionaries in which they write newly acquired vocabulary in L1 and L2 columns. Make sure all the pupils include the three 'missing', lexical items.
4. Give out copies of the story written totally in L2. Tell/read or play recording to the whole class and have them 'read'/follow the written script as they listen to it. Then check their comprehension through verbal questioning, using L1 or L2 according to your specific needs. Below are some questions devised to elicit short answers that correspond to the lexical items we are focusing on.

   10 questions

   What's the story called? What's the little girl's name? Who is ill? Who says: "Take this basket of food to Grandmother"? Where is the little girl going? Where does grandmother live? What is she taking to Grandmother? Who suddenly appears from behind a tree? Who helps Red Riding Hood? Where is grandmother?

   10 expected short answers

   Little Red Riding Hood; Red Riding Hood; Grandmother; Mother; (to) Grand -mother's House; (in the) Forest; (a) Basket of Food; the (Big Bad) Wolf; (the) Woodcutter; (under the) Bed.

   Here are some suggestions on how to deal with the questions:

1. Verbal questioning by teacher (L1or L2) with pupils responding verbally, at random giving answers in either L1 or L2 or picking up the picture/word cards to show recognition/understanding.
2. Teacher writes questions on the board (in L2), pupils write answers (in L1 or L2 or a mixture) Optionally use texts to find answers and copy them.
3. Make 'question cards' and 'answer cards' (both in L2) make enough sets for each group of pupils. Jumble the cards and tell the pupils to sort the questions from the answers, next to match questions to answers; then to put them in the correct sequence of story. Monitor and facilitate.
5. Time to work on a single Wall-story or individual 'books'; the former can be done collaboratively in groups with each member contributing with 'writing', 'proof-reading', illustrating with drawings, cutting and sticking so that all are involved in the final 'editing' and display. There again some children like to make their own little books. This might lead to different final versions and be more interesting for others to see and 'read'. The idea that other people can read their work provides an incentive to do their best. Whichever method is taken, collaboratively or individually they will probably only be attempting to write captions for pictures. Pictures should be provided and the 'word' cards available as prompts, so that at least they have one word written in L2. Remember they are struggling with two codes so at this early stage it does not matter if they mix the languages in their early writings in L2. When they have had practice at writing captions, it is time to test their feelings about the story. Get them to complete sentences related to the characters, e.g. "I like ------- best because -------." "I think the wolf is -------- because -------------." "I don't like the --------- because----------." Or compare statements: "The woodcutter is bad" with "The wolf is good". If their efforts are mostly in L1 they can be looked at again in a later lesson and translated into L2 by peers and/or teacher; this can be a learning process for all. What matters is that their early contact with L2 is positive.

Classwork for 10/11/12 year-olds

Aim: To develop their literacy skills and building on existing knowledge of L2 with the aid of L1.
Time: Approximately two 50-60 minute lessons
The lessons presuppose students 'know' basic L2 'classroom language' for asking about further L2 items; they 'know' basic vocabulary for this story; they have a notion of the difference between past and present and are probably aware of some past forms in English e.g. went, liked ,visited, said; they are aware of narrative structure and conventions of how stories start and end (Once upon a time... etc.) in L1 and possibly in L2; they are proficient readers and writers in L1 and are able to transfer those skills to L2.

Preparation

Basically as for 7/8/9 year-olds (See above); you may wish to use the "Present Tense" texts provided, or you may choose to adapt both texts to the 'cognitive level' of this age group; in which case you should put the verbs into the past, extend the vocabulary and add phrases such as "Once upon a time… etc." Alternatively you could get the students to perform this task. (See below).

Procedure Lesson 1

1. Brainstorm "Fairy-Stories" to find out what stories they already know, ( L1 and/or L2). Compare L1 titles to L2 ones. Then place the six large pictures in a prominent place for whole class to see, arranging them in an obviously 'wrong' order to that of the storyline. Elicit title of this story from class.
2. Divide class into pairs/groups and using the large pictures get the students to discuss a possible 'correct' order for the pictures and to predict vocabulary they think might be used in the story. Tell them to organize and note this vocabulary in special dual language vocabulary pages/books. There may be variations as to how they order the pictures, so accept all as possible but emphasize the most viable to 'this' story. Try to conduct this discussion in L2 with pupils resorting to known classroom language. Use L1 as a last resort, in situations of extreme lack of understanding and/or distress.
3. Basically the same as stage 3 lesson 1 (7/8/9 year olds). Set the scene and read/tell/play recording of bilingual version of story; class listen. Difference here is that the activity is intended not only to familiarize the class with the story framework but also to enable the pupils to verify the required sequence of the pictures as compared with their individual opinions and to confirm(or not) their predictions of vocabulary.
4. Same as step 4 lesson 1(7/8/9 year olds). Divide the class into pairs/groups and give them bilingual-story texts to read. The difference here is that they will be concentrating more on there own predictions and perhaps discussing possible translations. Monitor the discussion and make sure they are aware of the 10 vocabulary items. Using bilingual dictionaries (if available), the teacher and peers as resources, they could try to produce a complete text in L2. Finally give copies of L2 version for pupils to read and compare their 'translations'.
5. As a snippet of 'fun' follow the same steps as stage 5a, b & c, lesson 1(7/8/9 year olds). Here, as an extra activity, you can also use these cards for a game of 'Bingo'. In this case cut up the page of words and make cards but leave the page of pictures intact. Give each pupil a copy of the pictures and one set of word cards. Tell the class you are going to call out words from the story but very quickly and only once. They have to choose the correct word and place it on the matching picture. Winners are those who have a full sheet correctly matched, after shouting "BINGO". Alternatively delegate individual students as 'callers'.

I consider this to be about 50-60 minutes' 'work'.

Procedure. Lesson 2.

1. Revive the theme with comprehension check questions. (See step 4 lesson 2, 7/8/9 year-olds). Depending on your 10/11/12 year-olds' capabilities in L2 and whether you have used a more complex text or not; the questions here might be in the past tense.Whatever the situation: in groups/pairs have them recall the story orally, then they themselves could write some questions and answers. These are jumbled and then passed on to another group to match and sequence.
2. If "Present Tense" texts have been used instead of "Past Tense" versions, then I suggest a 'discovering-grammar' activity, which focuses on the L1 & L2 'verb' forms therein. There are 15 main 'action' verbs and are as follows: e.g. L1/L2, vive/lives, diz/says, anda/walks, aparece/appears, pergunta/asks, vai/goes, chega/arrives, encontra/finds, responde/replies, salta/jumps, tenta/tries, corre/runs, ouve/hears, vem/comes, mata/kills.
1. Divide the class into pairs, give each pair copies of the 2 present tense stories and tell them to locate the 'words that express action' (i.e. verbs), by UNDERLINING L1 verbs and CIRCLING L2 verbs. One student can work on the L1 verbs the other on L2 verbs, then exchange copies and check. Here they will use bilingual dictionaries and most certainly each other and the teacher in this 'discovery-learning' process. They can then transfer the two sets of verb forms to their bilingual worksheets-cum-dictionaries. In the process this task can become an information-gap activity in which the following 'classroom language' can be used: "How do you say (vive [L1]) in (English [L2])?" "It's (lives) and "Can you spell it?" "Yes, it's L-I-V-E-S." "Thank you". N.B. Most 10/11/12 year-olds will probably be aware of 'grammar' in L1 and might even know terminology in L2. It is therefore your decision as to how you deal with this area. It is not my intention to mention 'grammar' directly to the pupils here but to have them discover the rules for themselves indirectly via a meaningful activity, which makes sense to them. You will also notice that all L2 verbs are of the irregular 3^rd person singular (morpheme /s/) which may cause you some concern, again this can be dealt with in further lessons.
2. Likewise, L2 Past Tense verb forms can be 'discovered' in a similar way. Produce a task sheet on which the PAST forms of the above 15 verbs are written at random. Make copies for students who then match the Past verbs to the L2 Present tense verbs. Alternatively blank out the verbs in the text and use it as a gap-filling exercise. Use a 'Classroom language' activity: "What's the past of (live)?" "It's (lived)" or "It's this one/that one"(pointing at word) etc. for checking and confirming answers. (N.B. Tell them is = was, are = were)
3. Follow this with a writing stage using Present or Past Time. Encourage use of as much L2 as possible based on the above input but do not censor L1.

Options

1. Get them, groups/pairs or individuals to rewrite the above story,recalling their personal versions (step 1, lesson 1) and using their own ideas/words.
2. Tell them (in groups/pairs) to write a story from the point of view of one of the 5 characters. (Distribute the 5 'choices' evenly amongst the class).
3. Provide them with a sequence of pictures representing a different well-known fairy story. In groups/pairs they should sequence the pictures in an agreed order for their story, then share the writing of captions/texts for each picture.
   These ideas exercise a process of 'real' writing, from a rough draft through to a final product. Even if it is in a mixture of L1&L2, encourage and direct them toward awareness of errors, self-correction and rewriting of a second, even a third draft before editing the final product; which may indeed be a 'Bilingual Story'! Nurturing their creativity with a few steps into L2 and confidence is what matters!

Acknowledgement

My thanks go to Vlasta Brajovic from Zagreb, Croatia, whom I met on a course at "Pilgims" Canterbury 1986, for introducing me to the idea of bilingual story-telling.

References

Meek, M., On being Literate, London, The Bodley Head, 1991.

Vygotsky, L., Mind in Society, Cambridge (Mass.), Harvard UniversityPress,1978.

Talk and Learning 5-16, Milton Keynes, The Open University, 1991.

English in the Primary Curriculum: Developing Reading and Writing, Milton Keynes, The Open University, 1992.

Appendix

The Story of Little Red Riding Hood /A Historia da Capuchinha Vermelha Bilingual version (7/8/9 year olds)

L1 = Portuguese (Italics)
L2 = English (Bold)

Este história é duma menina que chame-se Red Riding Hood. Little Red Riding Hood's Avó vive numa casa pequena in the forest.

Um dia Red Riding Hood's mother diz-lhe, "Avó está doente. Leve este basket of food para ela."

Little Red Riding Hood anda pela floresta e um big bad lobo aparece de repente detrás de uma tree.

O big bad wolf pergunta, "Onde vais menina?"e ela diz-lho que va a casa da avó. Rapidamente the big bad wolf vai a house de avó.

Quando Red Riding Hood chega à grandmother's house ela encontra 'avózinha' na cama. Ela está muito estranha e different!

Sim! É the big bad wolf em vez da Red Riding Hood's Grandmother.

"Que grandes ears tem!" diz a menina.

"All the melhor te ouvir," responde o lobo.

"Que big eyes tem!" diz the little girl.

"All the better to ver", responde the wolf.

"Oh, what big teeth you have!" says the little girl.

"All the better to eat you with", replies the wolf. And...

The wolf salta da bed e tenta comer Red Riding Hood.

She corre até à porta gritando, "Help! Help!"
Felizmente um lenhador ouve seus gritos and vem em sua help.

The woodcutter mata the wolf and Red Riding Hood encontra grandmother

debaixo da bed. Enfim tudo está bem e eles estão muito happy!

The Story of Little Red Riding Hood /A Historia da Capuchinha Vermelha English L2 version (7/8/9 year olds)

This is the story of a little girl called Red Riding Hood.
Little Red Riding Hood's Grandmother lives in a little house in the forest.

One day Red Riding Hood's mother says to her, "Grandmother is ill. Take this basket of food to her".

Little Red Riding Hood walks through the forest and suddenly a big bad wolf appears from behind a tree.

The big bad wolf asks, "Where are you going little girl?" and she says she is going to her Grandmother's house. Quickly, the big bad wolf goes to Grandmother's house.

When Red Riding hood arrives at Grandmother's house she finds 'granny' in bed. She is very strange and different!

Yes! It is the big bad wolf instead of Red Riding Hood's Grandmother!

"What big ears you have!" says the little girl.

"All the better to hear you with" replies the wolf.

"What big eyes you have!" says the little girl.

"All the better to see you with" replies the wolf.

" Oh Grandmother, what big teeth you have!" says the little girl

"All the better to eat you with" replies the wolf. And...

The wolf jumps out of bed and tries to eat Red Riding Hood.

She runs to the door shouting, "Help, help!"
Fortunately a woodcutter hears her cry and comes to help her.
The woodcutter kills the wolf and Red Riding Hood finds Grandmother under the bed. In the end all is well and they are very happy.

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