Preserving Students´ Motivation when Improving Oral Skills in the Foreign Language Classroom

Adriana Halušková, Slovakia

Paed. Dr. Adriana Halušková, PhD. studied English language and literature at the Faculty of Education, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia. After graduation, she has continued with her academically oriented activities and research in the field of foreign language teaching and the theory of communication. She lectures on foreign language methodology, pragmatics and discourse analysis. As part of her scientific research and professional studies, she also participated in the exchange programme at the Montclair State University in New Jersey, where delivered a sequence of lectures concerning training of foreign language teachers in the communicative methodology. She is also an author of several scientific studies, articles, university course books and a monograph, aimed at foreign language teaching and learning.
E-mail: adriana.haluskova@fedu.uniba.sk

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Introduction
What kinds of mistakes can be encountered in the language classroom?
Error analysis in various psycholinguistic theories
Which mistakes are worth our attention?
What should we know about motivation in the language classroom in general?
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation
Expectation for success
Useful points arising from research
Conclusion
References

Introduction

Errors and mistakes play a crucial role in the process of developing speaking skills. On the basis of our teaching experiences, we would like to propose possible suggestions as far as correction of speech errors is concerned, taking into consideration motivation of language learners.

Firstly, we need to explain the difference between fundamental notions that are related to the correction of oral performance in a target language, so that the teacher can take adequate measures in the language classroom. The notions we bear in mind are ´errors´ and ´mistakes´. Errors are due to deviant competences or the result of ´interlanguage´. In these cases, the learner’s performance truly accords with his competence which has developed characteristics different from those of L2 (target language) norms. Mistakes in performance occur when the user/learner is unable to bring his/her competences properly into action. (CEFR 2006)

When mentioning errors and mistakes, it is important to clarify the term ´interlanguage´ as it plays a significant role in the process of speaking skills development. Interlanguage can be defined as the learner’s momentary system of target language. It is a system that has structurally an intermediate status between the learner’s mother tongue and target language. The term interlanguage´ was used for the first time by Selinker in 1972. In order to understand its functioning, we need to be aware of the fact that it is dynamic in nature. It changes all the time as a result of our mood and other variables primarily connected with learners´ personality traits.

What kinds of mistakes can be encountered in the language classroom?

If we want to develop speaking skills effectively, we should be familiar with the following four stages that characterize the interlanguage development. The four stages are based on observations of what the learner does in terms of an error.

The first stage of random errors is a stage which Corder (1973) called ´pre-systematic´. Here, the learner is only vaguely aware that there is some systematic order to a particular class of items. Inconsistencies like “He cans speak French” occur. The second stage of interlanguage development is called ´emergent stage´. The most salient feature of this stage is the fact that the learner has already begun to internalize certain rules. This stage is also characterized by ´backsliding´ in which the learner seems to have made certain progress and then regresses to some previous stage. The learner is not able to correct errors, even if these are pointed out by somebody else. The third stage is a ´systematic´ stage. We can see that learners are able to correct the produced errors. The final stage is the ´stabilization´ or ´post-systematic´ stage. The linguistic system is complete enough and thus, attention can be paid predominantly to fluency practice. What is more, learners can correct their errors without waiting for feedback from other interlocutors.

It is also inevitable to remark that correction of speech errors is a complex phenomenon and many variables like age, educational background, level of proficiency, and interests of language learners should be taken into consideration. What is also of great interest to us are activities that learners are involved in. In case of fluency practice it is strongly recommended to sustain the flow of oral performance and postpone the correction of errors to final stages of language lesson.

Error analysis in various psycholinguistic theories

Error analysis spread in 60´s and 70´s of the previous century. It was also the era when foundations of communicative methodology were laid. From the very beginning of our analysis it should be noted that there is no one correct approach to correction of speech errors produced in target language. However, being familiar with various existing views upon it, the language teacher can create his/her own philosophy related to error correction with respect to uniqueness that each classroom exhibits.

According to error analysis we can identify the level of interlanguage and thus, we can achieve more effective development of speaking skills. Humanistic approaches to language learning as well as other experts in psycholinguistics like e.g. Corder or Schachter (1974) do not approach errors in a negative way. According to them, production of errors should be viewed as a manifestation of language progress, indicating the stage of learners´ knowledge. In connection with contrastive analysis, it is inevitable to define the terms like ´transfer´ and ´interference´. Transfer can be understood as an umbrella term for both positive and negative transfer. Interference, on the other hand, refers only to negative transfer. On the basis of this distinction we can assume that transfer is the influence resulting from similarities and differences between two different language systems. It tells us how the system of previously acquired language influences learners´ target language mastery.

Nowadays, there is a large number of psycholinguistic theories that attempt to explain the influence of mother tongue upon target language learning. Generally speaking, there are two dichotomous points of view. The first one believes that wherever two languages are similar, problems can be anticipated. On the other, an opposing point of view suggests that differences between two languages can be a source of language learning difficulties. It can be said that an answer to these questionable issues has not been found yet. According to us, more interesting point of view was proposed by Krashen (1982) in his ´natural order hypothesis´. He is of the view that each language learner of a given target language would acquire the individual morphemes of this language in a pre-determined order regardless of the order of their presentation. This finding is based on an extensive research that has for us at least two important revelations. The first one is related to grammar teaching. In this respect Krashen suggests that language learners should be exposed to language input that has a communicative value and primary attention should be paid to vocabulary as words are the building blocks of any language. Conscious and deductive grammar teaching should be avoided. Secondly, correction of mistakes should be approached carefully, so that language learners do not feel distracted from the production of spoken language by continuous intervention from the teacher. For Krashen, production of errors is an inseparable part of language acquisition/learning and thus, it should be corrected only in cases when it is necessary.

Which mistakes are worth our attention?

Having noticed an error, the first decision the teacher has to make is whether to treat it or not. Hendrickson (1980) suggests division between global and local errors. Global errors hinder communication. They prevent the hearer from understanding some aspect of the intended message. Local errors do not prevent a message from being understood because context provides clues to its meaning.

From everyday practice it is quite clear that students want their errors to be corrected. Teachers´ classroom behaviour is in this respect influenced by chosen teaching methodology as well (see Larsen- Freeman 2002). Some methods recommend no direct treatment of errors at all. In natural environment (e.g. mother tongue acquisition), children are corrected by parents in case of only small percentage of errors that they produce. Usually, native speakers attend only to global errors and not in the form of direct and immediate interruptions, but at transition points in conversation.

Still there are occasions and situations when it is advisable for language teachers to act systematically and reflect on the type of errors being produced. Bailey (1985) studied this issue in the light of communicative methodology, trying to preserve the balance between fluency and accuracy of spoken language. She proposes the following taxonomy of error treatment:

Basic options are as follows:

1. To treat or to ignore
2. To treat immediately or to delay
3. To transfer treatment or not
4. To transfer to another individual, a subgroup, or the whole class
5. To return, or not, to original error maker after treatment
6. To permit other learners to initiate treatment
7. To test for the efficacy of the treatment

Seven basic options are complemented by eight possible features within each option.

Possible features are as follows:

1. Fact of error indicated
2. Location indicated
3. Opportunity for new attempt given
4. Model provided
5. Error type indicated
6. Remedy indicated
7. Improvement indicated
8. Praise indicated

To conclude, the teacher needs to develop his/her intuition through experience and sufficient body of eclectic theoretical foundations in order to know which option, or combination of options, is adequate at given moments. For this reason, it is inevitable to be familiar with more divergent theories dealing with error correction, so that multifaceted nature of language teaching conditions can be considered.

What should we know about motivation in the language classroom in general?

As we have already pointed out, error correction can be a rather sensitive issue in case of all age groups. That is why it is inevitable for any language teacher to sustain interaction among students in friendly and positive atmosphere, where students´ motivation is enhanced to a maximum degree (Ellis 1997).

• The student’s natural interest     intrinsic satisfaction
• Motivation by the teacher           extrinsic rewards
• Success in the task                  satisfaction and reward

Intrinsic motivation

• Involves an interest in the learning task itself and also satisfaction being gained from task.
• Effective teaching must win the hearts and minds of pupils if the learning experience is to involve intrinsic motivation, curiosity, interest and a proper educational engagement useful way of eliciting students’ interest is to pose a question or a problem at the start of the lesson.
• A task can afford a way of working that is satisfying, such as learning as part of a group in a social context. Active involvement and co-operation between pupils fosters enjoyment.
• Project work can act as a very important source of motivation through the degree of choice and control it offers to students in undertaking the work.
• Select topics that are likely to interest students, particularly if they relate to students’ own experiences.
• Offering a choice can also elicit interest.
• Provide students with regular feedback concerning how their skills and competence are developing. Review: Show what you know, understand and can do - rehearse, practice and memorize.
• Draw their attention to what they can do and understand now compared with before the course of work began.

Extrinsic motivation

• Teacher praise is a powerful motivator although its effect depends on skilful use.
• Praise should be linked to students’ effort and attainment, conveying sincere pleasure on the teacher’s part and should be used with credibility.
• Well judged, consistent, frequent and targeted use of praise that identifies the individual or group’s specific behaviour or attributes and celebrates them with positive unconditional language is very powerful.
• Indicate to students the usefulness, relevance and importance of the topic or activity to their needs.

Expectation for success

• Teacher expectations can influence their behaviour towards students in ways that promote greater progress and produce a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ effect.
• Ensure the tasks are challenging and offer students a realistic chance of success, taking into account their ability and previous learning.
• ‘Hook’ what is to be learned to existing experience or knowledge to aid memory, help assimilate new learning and raise expectation.
• Expectations need to convey that the activities are worthwhile and of interest.
• Monitor students’ progress closely providing quick and supportive feedback when a student has encountered major difficulties.
• High expectations which are too demanding will not foster greater progress.

Useful points arising from research

• Young people are intrinsically motivated to a high degree; many elements of the environment constitute challenges for them. Unfortunately after a number of years in education this intrinsic motivation is dampened (Doughty 2006).
• Intrinsic motivation is more easily undermined than created.
• Teachers need to be aware of the purpose of any extrinsic methods that they use for motivating their students and have a clear rationale about how they foster intrinsic motivation.
• Tasks which best elicit student motivation are those seen by students to be challenging, difficult but achievable.
• Teaching poorly motivated student is a major source of stress for teachers.
• Role of home and parental encouragement is of major importance in influencing the level of students’ academic motivation.
• The opportunity to learn from each other in the classroom is becoming recognized as a viable approach to increase student motivation and learning.
• Praise to criticism in the ratio of 4:1 will develop a more welcoming and positive climate for learning.

Conclusion

The task of the language teacher is to value learners, appreciate their attempts to communicate and provide optimal feedback, so that the language system can evolve in successive stages as we have already outlined them in this article. In order to provide the reader with a balanced point of view concerning error correction, we decided to present various theoretical approaches to error treatment, so that the teacher can create his/her own eclectic approach when dealing with the lack of linguistic knowledge and motivation on the part of the learner.

References

Bailey, K.M. 1985. Classroom-centered research on language teaching and learning. In Celce-Murcia, Marianne (Ed.), Beyond Basics: Issues and Research in TESOL. Newbury House.

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) / Spoločný Európsky Referenčný Rámec pre Jazyky: Učenie sa, vyučovanie, hodnotenie. Bratislava: Štátny pedagogický ústav, 2006.

Corder, S.P. 1973. Introducing applied linguistics. Penquin Education.

Doughty, C.J. – Long, M.H. 2006. The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Ellis, R. 1997. Second Language Acquisition Research and Language Teaching. Oxford: University Press.

Halouskova, A. 2007. Praktické implikácie Johnsonovho modelu učenia sa a vyučovania gramatiky cudzieho jazyka na stredných školách na báze systémovo-funkčnej lingvistiky. (Zborník: Foreign Language Acquisition in European Context). Batislava.

Hendrickson, J.M. 1980. Error correction in foreign language teaching: Recent theory, research, and practice. In Croft, Kenneth (Ed.), Readings on English as a Second Language. Second Edition. Winthrop.

Krashen, S.D. 1982. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Pergamon Press. Larsen-Freeman, D. 2002. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Schachter, J. 1974. An error in error analysis. Language learning 24/2: 205-14.

Selinker, L. 1972. Interlanguage. IRAL 10/2: 209-31.

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